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MAY-pe84 

1 

A  MANUAL  OF  GAEDENING 


•Ti^^)<i;>^ 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO 
SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •    BOMBAY   •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


Manual  of  Gardening 


A  PRACTICAL  GUIDE 

TO   THE  MAKING   OF   HOME   GROUNDS   AND 

THE   GROWING   OF   FLOWERS,   FRUITS, 

AND  VEGETABLES  FOR  HOME  USE 


S-^ 


BY 


Hr^^ 


L.   HABAILEY 


NEW  AND  REVISED  EDITION 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1918 

AH  rights  reserved 


^3 


Copyright,  1910  and  1916, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  March,  igio.     Reprinted 
December,  igio  ;  March,  igii  ;  September,  1912;  July,  1914. 


New  and  revised  edition,  July,  1916;  July,  1917. 


NorfDootr  ^rese 

J.  8.  Cashing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


EXPLANATION 


It  has  been  my  desire  to  reconstruct  the  two  books,  *'  Garden- 
Making"  and  "Practical  Garden-Book";  but  inasmuch  as 
these  books  have  found  a  constituency  in  their  present  form, 
it  has  seemed  best  to  let  them  stand  as  they  are  and  to  con- 
tinue their  pubhcation  as  long  as  the  demand  maintains  itself, 
and  to  prepare  a  new  work  on  gardening.  This  new  work  I 
now  offer  as  *' A  Manual  of  Gardening."  It  is  a  combination 
and  revision  of  the  main  parts  of  the  other  two  books,  together 
with  much  new  material  and  the  results  of  the  experience  of 
ten  added  years. 

A  book  of  this  kind  cannot  be  drawn  wholly  from  one's  own 
practice,  unless  it  is  designed  to  have  a  very  restricted  and 
local  appHcation.  Many  of  the  best  suggestions  in  such  a  book 
will  have  come  from  correspondents,  questioners,  and  those 
who  enjoy  talking  about  gardens;  and  my  situation  has  been 
such  that  these  communications  have  come  to  me  freely. 
I  have  always  tried,  however,  to  test  all  such  suggestions  by 
experience  and  to  make  them  my  own  before  offering  them 
to  my  reader.  I  must  express  my  special  obligation  to  those 
persons  who  collaborated  in  the  preparation  of  the  other  two 
books,  and  whose  contributions  have  been  freely  used  in  this 
one:  to  C.  E.  Hunn,  a  gardener  of  long  experience;  Professor 
Ernest  Walker,  reared  as  a  commercial  florist;  Professor  L.  R. 
Taft  and  Professor  F.  A.  Waugh,  well  known  for  their  studies 
and  writings  in  horticultural  subjects. 

V 

<r/  C^j  PROPERTY  OF 

ISb^^    A;ae.  college: 


vi  EXPLANATION 

In  making  this  book,  I  have  had  constantly  in  mind  the 
home-maker  himself  or  herself  rather  than  the  professional 
gardener.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  we  attach 
many  persons  to  the  land  ;  and  I  am  convinced  that  an  in- 
terest in  gardening  will  naturally  take  the  place  of  many 
desires  that  are  much  more  difficult  to  gratify,  and  that  lie 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  average  man  or  woman. 

It  has  been  my  good  fortune  to  have  seen  amateur  and  com- 
mercial gardening  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  I  have 
tried  to  express  something  of  this  generality  in  the  book;  yet 
my  experience,  as  well  as  that  of  my  original  collaborators, 
is  of  the  northeastern  states,  and  the  book  is  therefore  neces- 
sarily written  from  this  region  as  a  base.  One  gardening  book 
cannot  be  made  to  apply  in  its  practice  in  all  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada  unless  its  instructions  are  so  general 
as  to  be  practically  useless;  but  the  principles  and  points  of 
view  may  have  wider  application.  While  I  have  tried  to  give 
only  the  soundest  and  most  tested  advice,  I  cannot  hope  to 
have  escaped  errors  and  shortcomings,  and  I  shall  be  grateful 
to  my  reader  if  he  will  advise  me  of  mistakes  or  faults  that 
he  may  discover.  I  shall  expect  to  use  such  information  in  the 
making  of  subsequent  editions. 

Of  course  an  author  cannot  hold  himself  responsible  for 
failures  that  his  reader  may  suffer.  The  statements  in  a  book 
of  this  kind  are  in  the  nature  of  advice,  and  it  may  or  it  may 
not  apply  in  particular  conditions,  and  the  success  or  failure 
is  the  result  mostly  of  the  judgment  and  carefulness  of  the 
operator.  I  hope  that  no  reader  of  a  gardening  book  will  ever 
conceive  the  idea  that  reading  a  book  and  following  it  Hterally 
will  make  him  a  gardener.  He  must  always  assume  his  own 
risks,  and  this  will  be  the  first  step  in  his  personal  progress. 

I  should  explain  that  the  botanical  nomenclature  of  this 
book  is  that  of  the  ''  Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture," 
unless    otherwise    stated.      The   exceptions    are   the    "trade 


EXP  LAN  A  TION  vU 

names,"  or  those  used  by  nurserymen  and  seedsmen  in  the  sale 
of  their  stock. 

I  should  further  explain  the  reason  for  omitting  ligatures  and 
using  such  words  as  peony,  spirea,  dracena,  cobea.  As  techni- 
cal Latin  formularies,  the  compounds  must  of  course  be  retained, 
as  in  Pceonia  officinalis,  Spircea  Thunhergi,  Draccena  fragrans, 
Coboea  scandens;  but  as  Anghcized  words  of  common  speech 
it  is  time  to  follow  the  custom  of  general  hterature,  in  which 
the  combinations  se  and  oe  have  disappeared.  This  simpHfica- 
tion  was  begun  in  the  ''  Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture  " 
and  has  been  continued  in  other  writings. 

L.  H.  BAILEY. 

Ithaca,  New  York, 
January  20,  1910. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   I 

PAGES 

The  Point  of  View ^  "^ 

o 

What  a  garden  is 

CHAPTER  II 

The  General  Plan  or  Theory  of  the  Place 6-60 

The  plan  of  the  grounds 

The  picture  in  the  landscape ^'^ 

Birds  ;  and  cats 

The  planting  is  part  of  the  design  or  picture 1^ 

The  flower-growing  should  he  part  of  the  design       .        .        .        .27 

Defects  in  flower-growing 28 

Lawn  flower-beds ^^ 

Flower-borders ^^ 

The  old-fashioned  garden ^* 

Contents  of  the  flower-borders ^^ 

The  value  of  plants  may  lie  in  foliage  and  form  rather  than  in 

bloom ^^ 

Odd  and  formal  trees '*^ 

Poplars  and  the  like ^^ 

Plant-forms ^^ 

Various  specific  examples 

An  example 

Another  example *' 

A  third  example 

A  small  back  yard ^^ 

A  city  lot  ....                 ^^ 

General  remarks *** 

Meview ^* 

CHAPTER  III 

Execution  of  So»ie  of  the  Landscape  Features     .         .         .  61-86 

The  grading 


X  CONTENTS 

PAGES 

The  terrace c        .        .        .  62 

The  hounding  lines c         ....  64 

Walks  and  drives 67 

The  question  of  drainage,  curbing,  and  gutters          ...  69 

The  materials 73 

Making  the  borders  ...         .......  74 

Making  the  lawn       ..........  77 

Preparing  the  ground 77 

The  kind  of  grass ,        .  78 

When  and  how  to  sow  the  seed          ......  80 

Securing  a  firm  sod 81 

The  mowing 82 

Fall  treatment    .        . 82 

Spring  treatment 83 

Watering  lawns 83 

Sodding  the  lawn 84 

A  combination  of  sodding  and  seeding 85 

Sowing  with  sod          .         .         .     - 86 

Other  ground  covers 86 

CHAPTER  IV 

The  Handling  of  the  Land .        87-114 

The  draining  of  the  land 88 

Trenching  and  suhsoiling 90 

Preparation  of  the  surf  ace 92 

The  saving  of  7noisture 97 

Hand  tools  for  weeding  and  subsequent  tillage  and  other  hand  vmrk  101 

The  hoe 101 

Scarifiers 105 

Hand-weeders 106 

Trowels  and  their  kind 106 

Rollers ,  108 

Markers 108 

Enriching  the  land .110 

CHAPTER    V 

The  Handling  of  the  Plants 115-177 

Sowing  the  seeds        .         .         . 116 

Propagating  by  cuttings 118 

Dormant  stem-cuttings       .        .         .        .         .        ...  118 


CONTENTS 


XI 


PAGES 

Cuttings  of  roots ,         .        .        .119 

Green  cuttings 120 

Cuttings  of  leaves 120 

General  treatment 121 

Transplanting  young  seedlings         .         .         .        .         .        .         .  122 

Transplanting  established  plants  and  trees 124 

Tub-plants 125 

When  to  transplant    .         .        . 126 

Depth  to  transplant    .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .127 

Making  the  rows  straight 127 

Cutting-back;  filling 129 

Removing  very  large  trees 130 

Winter  protection  ofj^lants       . 135 

Pruning 139 

Tree  surgery  and  protection .         .  142 

Tree  guards 143 

Mice  and  rabbits 144 

Girdled  trees 144 

Repairing  street  trees 145 

ITie  grafting  of  plants 151 

Keeping  records  of  the  plantation 154 

The  storing  of  fruits  and  vegetables 158 

The  forcing  of  plants 161 

Coldframes 164 

Hotbeds 168 

Management  of  hotbeds 175 


CHAPTER   VI 


Protecting  Plants  from  Things  that  prey  on  Them 
Screens  and  covers   . 
Fumigating 

Soaking  tubers  and  seeds . 
Spraying  .... 
Insecticide  spraying  formulas 
Fungicide  spraying  formulas 
Treatment  for  some  of  the  common  insects 
Treatment  for  some  of  the  common  plant  diseases 


178-213 
186 
188 
190 
190 
193 
196 
198 
207 


Xll  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  VII 

PAGES 

The    Growing    op    the    Ornamental    Plants  —  The    Classes    of 

Plants,  and  Lists 214-349 

Planting  for  immediate  effect 215 

TJie  use  of ''''foliage  ^^  trees  and  shrubs 218 

Windbreaks  and  screens 219 

The  making  of  hedges 220 

The  borders 222 

The  flower-beds 225 

Bedding  effects 228 

Planu   "•:>'  ?':'btropical  effects 229 

Aquatic  and  bog  plants 230 

Mockeries  and  alpine  plants 232 

1.  Plants  for  Carpet-beds .        .         .  234 

Lists  for  carpet-beds 236 

2.  The  Annual  Plants 241 

List  of  annuals  by  color  of  flowers 246 

Useful  annuals  for  edgings  of  beds  and  walks,  and  for  ribbon-beds  248 

Annuals  that  continue  to  bloom  after  frost 248 

List  ofanmials  suitable  for  bedding  (that  is,  for  ^'■mass-effects''''  of 

color) 249 

List  of  annuals  by  height 251 

Distances  for  planting  animals 256 

3.  Hardy  Herbaceous  Perennials 260 

Perennial  herbs  suitable  for  lawn  and  '•'•  planting''"'  effects        .        .  262 
A  brief  seasonal  flower-garden  or  border  list  of  herbaceous  peren- 
nials        264 

One  hundred  extra-hardy  perennial  herbs 273 

4.  Bulbs  and  Tubers 281 

Fall-planted  bulbs 281 

List  of  outdoor  fall-planted  bulbs  for  the  North       ....  288 

Winter  bulbs 289 

Summer  bulbs 289 

5.  The  Shrubbery 290 

lAst  of  shrubbery  plants  for  the  North 292 

Shrubs  for  the  South 305 


CONTENTS  xm 

PAGES 

6.  Climbing  Plants  .        .         . 307 

Annual  herbaceous  climbers 310 

Perennial  herbaceous  climbers .  311 

Woody  perennial  climbers 314 

Climbing  roses 318 

7.  Trees  for  Lawns  and  Streets 319 

List  of  hardy  deciduous  trees  for  the  No7'th 322 

Non-coniferous  trees  for  the  South 330 

8.  Coniferous  Evergreen  Shrubs  and  Trees        ....  331 

List  of  shrubby  conifers 333 

Arboreous  conifers 334 

Conifers  for  the  South 336 

9.  Window-gardens 336 

The  window-box  for  outside  effect 337 

The  inside  window-garden^  or '■''house plants^*         ....  341 

Bulbs  in  the  window-garden 345 

Watering  house  plants 347 

Hanging  baskets 348 

Aquarium 348 

CHAPTER  VIII 

The  Growing  of  the  Ornamental  Plants — Instructions  on  Par- 
ticular Kinds 350-407 

Abutilons,  351;  agapanthus,  351 ;  alstremeria,  352  ;  amaryllis, 
352 ;  anemone,  353 ;  aralia,  354  :  araucaria,  354  ;  auricula,  354 ; 
azaleas,  355  ;  begonias,  356 ;  cactus,  358  ;  caladium,  359  ;  calceo- 
laria, 360 ;  calla,  360 ;  camellias,  361 ;  cannas,  361 ;  carnations, 
363 ;  century  plants,  364 ;  chrysanthemums,  365  ;  cineraria,  367  ; 
clematis,  367,;  coleus,  368 ;  crocus,  368 ;  croton,  369 ;  cyclamen, 
370  ;  dahlia,  370  ;  ferns,  372  ;  freesia,  373  ;  fuchsia,  373  ;  gera- 
nium, 374  ;  gladiolus,  374 ;  gloxinia,  375 ;  grevillea,  376  ;  hollyhocks, 
376  ;  hyacinths,  377  ;  iris,  378  ;  lily,  378  ;  lily-of-the-valley,  381 ; 
mignonette,  381 ;  moon-flowers,  381 ;  narcissus,  382 ;  oleander, 
383 ;  oxalis,  384  ;  palms,  384  ;  pandanus,  385  ;  pansy,  386  ;  pelar- 
gonium, 386 ;  peony,  387  ;  phlox,  388 ;  primulas,  389 ;  rhododen- 
drons, 390  ;  rose,  391 ;  smilax,  401 ;  stocks,  402  ;  sweet  pea,  403 ; 
swainsona,  403 ;  tuberose,  404 ;  tulips,  405 ;  violet,  406 ;  wax 
plant,  407. 


XIV  ;  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  IX 

PAGES 

The  Growing  of  the  Fruit  Plants    ......      408-450 

Dwarf  fruit-trees 409 

Age  and  size  of  trees 410 

Pruning 411 

Thinning  the  fruit 412 

Washing  and  scrubbing  the  trees 414 

Gathering  and  keeping  fi'uit 414 

Almond,  415 ;  apples,  416 ;  apricot,  420 ;  blackberry,  421  ; 
cherry,  422  ;  cranberry,  424  ;  currant,  425  ;  dewberry,  426  ;  fig,  426  ; 
gooseberry,  427  ;  grape,  428  ;  mulberry,  432  ;  nuts,  433  ;  orange, 
433  ;  peach,  435  ;  pear,  437  ;  plum,  439  ;  quince,  442  ;  raspberry, 
443 ;  strawberry,  445. 

CHAPTER  X 

The  Growing  of  the  Vegetable  Plants 451-500 

454 
456 
461 


Vegetables  for  six 

The  classes  of  vegetables 

The  culture  of  the  leading  vegetables 

Asparagus,  461 ;  artichoke,  462 ;  artichoke,  Jerusalem,  463 
bean,  463  ;  beet,  466  ;  broccoli,  467  ;  brussels  sprouts,  467  ;  cab 
bage,  468  ;  carrot,  471 ;  cauliflower,  471  ;  celeriac,  472 ;  celery, 
472;  chard,  475  ;  chicory,  476  ;  chervil,  476  ;  collards,  476  ;  cives,  477 
corn  salad,  477  ;  corn,  477 ;  cress,  478  ;  cucumber,  478 ;  dandelion 
479 ;  egg-plant,  480  ;  endive,  481 ;  garlic,  481 ;  horseradish,  481 ;  kale 
482  ;  kohlrabi,  483  ;  leek,  483  ;  lettuce,  483  ;  mushroom,  484  ;  mus- 
tard, 487  ;  muskmelon,  487  ;  okra,  488  ;  onion,  488  ;  parsley,  490 
parsnip,  490 ;  pea,  490  ;  pepper,  491  ;  potato,  492  ;  radish,  493 
rhubarb,  493  ;  salsify,  494  ;  sea-kale,  495  ;  sorrel,  495  ;  spearmint 
495 ;  spinach,  495  ;  squash,  496  ;  sweet-potato,  496  ;  tomato,  497 
turnips  and  rutabagas,  498 ;  watermelon,  499. 

CHAPTER   XI 

Seasonal  Reminders 601-526 

For  the  North 504 

For  the  South   . 516 

Index 527 


LIST  OF  PLATES 


PLATE 
I. 

II. 
III. 

IV. 


The  open  center 


Frontispiece 


FACING   PAGE 


VI. 
VII. 


VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 


XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 


The  plan  of  the  place 8 

Open-center  treatment  in  a  semi-tropical  country    ...       20 

Subtropical  bedding  against  a  building.     Caladiums,  cannas, 

abutilons,  permanent  rhododendrons,  and  other  large  stuff, 

with  tuberous  begonias  and  balsams  between 

A  subtropical  bed.     Center  of  cannas,  with  border  of  Pennise- 

tum  longistylum  (a  grass)  started  in  late  February  or  early 

March 

A  tree  that  gives  character  to  a  place 

The  planted  area.     The  main  sweep  of  the  open  lawn  is  not 
shown  in  the  picture,  but  the  beginning  of  the  tilled  grounds 

is  indicated 

A  well-planted  entrance.     Common  trees  and  bushes,  with 
Boston  ivy  on  the  post,  and  Berberis  Thunbergii  in  front    . 
A  rocky  bank  covered  with  permanent  informal  planting 
Rock-garden  plantation  on  the  stone  steps       .... 

The  rock-garden,  in  a  rear  place 

A  garden  walk.     An  attractive  effect  along  a  margin  or  in  the 

rear 

Planting  against  the  background.     Astilbe  and  campanula 

A  good  evergreen  wall-cover.     Evonyrmis  radicans 

A  shallow  lawn  pond,  containing  water-lilies,  variegated  sweet 

flag,  iris,  and  subtropical  bedding  at  the  rear  ;    fountain 

covered  with  parrot's  feather  (Myriophyllum  proserpina- 

coides) 230 

A  back  yard  with  summer  house,  and  gardens  beyond    .         .     244 

A  rose-garden.     The  La  France  rose 260 

A  back  yard  with  heavy  flower-garden  planting       .         .        .     270 
The  pageant  of  summer.     Gardens  of  C.  W.  Dowdeswell,  Eng- 
land, from  a  painting  by  Miss  Parsons          ....     290 
Virginia  creeper  screen,  on  an  old  fence,  with  wall-flowers 
and  hollyhocks  in  front .306 


40 


90 

110 
124 
140 
160 

180 
200 
216 


XVI 


LIST  OF  PLATES 


PLATE                                                                                                                                                                                           FACING  PAOB 

XXI.     A  flower-garden  of  China  asters,  with  border  of  one  of  the 

dusty  millers  ( Centaurea) 320 

XXII.     The  peony.     Que  of  the  most  steadfast  of  garden  flowers     .  336 

XXIII.  Cornflower  or  bachelor's  button.     Centaurea  Cyanus  .        .  360 

XXIV.  Pyracantha  in  fruit.    One  of  the  best  ornamental-fruited 

plants  for  the  middle  and  milder  latitudes          .         .         .  370 

XXV.    A  rectangular  garden  division  of  a  rear  property  .         .        .  390 

XXVI.     A  fruit  plantation  on  a  suburban  place          ....  410 

XXVII.     The  king  of  fruits.    Newtown  as  grown  in  the  Pacific  country  430 

XXVIII.     Wall-training  of  a  pear  tree 446 

XXIX.     Cherry  currant 460 

XXX.    A  good  vegetable-garden  layout,  with  long  rows  to  admit  of 

horse  cultivation 474 

XXXI.     Golden  Bantam  sweet  corn 490 

XXXII.     The  garden  radish,  grown  in  fall,  of  the  usual  spring  sorts  .  520 


A  MANUAL  OF  GARDENING 


MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

CHAPTER  I 

THE   POINT   OF  VIEW 

Wherever  there  is  soil,  plants  grow  and  produce  their  kind, 
and  all  plants  are  interesting;  when  a  person  makes  a  choice 
as  to  what  plants  he  shall  grow  in  any  given  place,  he  becomes 
a  gardener  or  a  farmer;  and  if  the  conditions  are  such  that 
he  cannot  make  a  choice,  he  may  adopt  the  plants  that  grow 
there  by  nature,  and  by  making  the  most  of  them  may  still  be 
a  gardener  or  a  farmer  in  some  degree. 

Every  family,  therefore,  may  have  a  garden.  If  there  is 
not  a  foot  of  land,  there  are  porches  or  windows.  Wherever 
there  is  sunlight,  plants  may  be  made  to  grow;  and  one  plant 
in  a  tin-can  may  be  a  more  helpful  and  inspiring  garden  to  some 
mind  than  a  whole  acre  of  lawn  and  flowers  may  be  to  another. 

The  satisfaction  of  a  garden  does  not  depend  on  the  area, 
nor,  happily,  on  the  cost  or  rarity  of  the  plants.  It  depends  on 
the  temper  of  the  person.  One  must  first  seek  to  love  plants 
and  nature,  and  then  to  cultivate  the  happy  peace  of  mind  that 
is  satisfied  with  little. 

In  the  vast  majority  of  cases  a  person  will  be  happier  if  he 
has  no  rigid  and  arbitrary  notions,  for  gardens  are  moodish, 
particularly  with  the  novice.  If  plants  grow  and  thrive,  he 
should  be  happy;  and  if  the  plants  that  thrive  chance  not  to 
be  the  ones  that  he  planted,  they  are  plants  nevertheless,  and 
nature  is  satisfied  with  them. 

B  1 


2  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

We  are  wont  to  covet  the  things  that  we  cannot  have;  but 
we  are  happier  when  we  love  the  things  that  grow  because  they 
must.  A  patch  of  lusty  pigweeds,  growing  and  crowding  in 
luxuriant  abandon,  may  be  a  better  and  more  worthy  object 
of  affection  than  a  bed  o.^  coleuses  in  which  every  spark  of  life 
and  spirit  and  individuahty  has  been  sheared  out  and  sup- 
pressed. The  man  who  worries  morning  and  night  about  the 
dandelions  in  the  lawn  will  find  great  relief  in  loving  the  dande- 
lions. Each  blossom  is  worth  more  than  a  gold  coin,  as  it 
shines  in  the  exuberant  sunlight  of  the  growing  spring,  and 
attracts  the  insects  to  its  bosom.  Little  children  like  the  dan- 
delions: why  may  not  we?  Love  the  things  nearest  at  hand: 
and  love  intensely.  If  I  were  to  write  a  motto  over  the  gate 
of  a  garden,  I  should  choose  the  remark  that  Socrates  is  said 
to  have  made  as  he  saw  the  luxuries  in  the  market,  "How  much 
there  is  in  the  world  that  I  do  not  want !" 

I  verily  believe  that  this  paragraph  I  have  just  written  is 
worth  more  than  all  the  advice  with  which  I  intend  to  cram  the 
succeeding  pages,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  I  have  most 
assiduously  extracted  this  advice  from  various  worthy  but, 
happily,  long-forgotten  authors.  Happiness  is  a  quality  of 
a  person,  not  of  a  plant  or  a  garden;  and  the  anticipation  of 
joy  in  the  writing  of  a  book  may  be  the  reason  why  so  many 
books  on  garden-making  have  been  written.  Of  course,  all 
these  books  have  been  good  and  useful.  It  would  be  ungrate- 
ful, at  the  least,  for  the  present  writer  to  say  otherwise;  but 
books  grow  old,  and  the  advice  becomes  too  familiar.  The 
sentences  need  to  be  transposed  and  the  order  of  the  chapters 
varied,  now  and  then,  or  interest  lags.  Or,  to  speak  plainly, 
a  new  book  of  advice  on  handicraft  is  needed  in  everj^  decade, 
or  perhaps  oftener  in  these  days  of  many  publishers.  There 
has  been  a  long  and  worthy  procession  of  these  handbooks,  — 
Gardiner  &  Hepburn,  M'Mahon,  Cobbett  —  original,  pungent, 
versatile  Cobbett !  —  Fessenden,  Squibb,  Bridgeman,  Sayers, 


THE  POINT  OF   VIEW  3 

Buist,  and  a  dozen  more,  each  one  a  little  richer  because  the 
others  had  been  written.  But  even  the  fact  that  all  books 
pass  into  oblivion  does  not  deter  another  hand  from  making 
still  another  venture. 

I  expect,  then,  that  every  person  who  reads  this  book  will 
make  a  garden,  or  will  try  to  make  one;  but  if  only  tares  grow 
where  roses  are  desired,  I  must  remind  the  reader  that  at  the 
outset  I   advised  pigweeds.     The  book,   therefore,  will  suit 


/x\$^€ 


1.   The  ornamental  burdock. 


everybody,  —  the  experienced  gardener,  because  it  will  be  a 
repetition  of  what  he  already  knows;  and  the  novice,  because 
it  will  apply  as  well  to  a  garden  of  burdocks  as  of  onions. 

What  a  garden  is. 

A  garden  is  the  personal  part  of  an  estate,  the  area  that 
is  most  intimately  associated  with  the  private  life  of  the  home. 
Originally,  the  garden  was  the  area  inside  the  inclosure  or  lines 
of  fortification,  in  distinction  from  the  unprotected  area  or 
fields  that  lay  beyond;  and  this  latter  area  was  the  particular 
domain  of  agriculture.     This  book  understands  the  garden  to 


4  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

be  that  part  of  the  personal  or  home  premises  devoted  to  orna- 
ment, and  to  the  growing  of  vegetables  and  fruits.  The  garden, 
therefore,  is  an  ill-defined  demesne;  but  the  reader  must  not 
make  the  mistake  of  defining  it  by  dimensions,  for  one  may 
have  a  garden  in  a  flower-pot  or  on  a  thousand  acres.  In 
other  words,  this  book  declares  that  every  bit  of  land  that  is 
not  used  for  buildings,  walks,  drives,  and  fences,  should  be 
planted.  What  we  shall  plant  —  whether  sward,  lilacs, 
thistles,  cabbages,  pears,  chrysanthemums,  or  tomatoes  —  we 
shall  talk  about  as  we  proceed. 

The  only  way  to  keep  land  perfectly  unproductive  is  to  keep 
it  moving.  The  moment  the  owner  lets  it  alone,  the  planting 
has  begun.  In  my  own  garden,  this  first  planting  is  of  pigweeds. 
These  may  be  followed,  the  next  year,  by  ragweeds,  then  by 
docks  and  thistles,  with  here  and  there  a  start  of  clover  and 
grass;  and  it  all  ends  in  June-grass  and  dandelions. 

Nature  does  not  allow  the  land  to  remain  bare  and  idle. 
Even  the  banks  where  plaster  and  lath  were  dumped  two  or 
three  years  ago  are  now  luxuriant  with  burdocks  and  sweet 
clover;  and  yet  persons  who  pass  those  dumps  every  day  say 
that  they  can  grow  nothing  in  their  own  yard  because  the  soil 
is  so  poor!  Yet  I  venture  that  those  same  persons  furnish 
most  of  the  pigweed  seed  that  I  use  on  my  garden. 

The  lesson  is  that  there  is  no  soil  —  where  a  house  would  be 
built  —  so  poor  that  something  worth  while  cannot  be  grown 
on  it.  If  burdocks  will  grow,  something  else  will  grow;  or  if 
nothing  else  will  grow,  then  I  prefer  burdocks  to  sand  and 
rubbish. 

The  burdock  is  one  of  the  most  striking  and  decorative  of 
plants,  and  a  good  piece  of  it  against  a  building  or  on  a  rough 
bank  is  just  as  useful  as  many  plants  that  cost  money  and  are  dif- 
ficult to  grow.  I  had  a  good  clump  of  burdock  under  my  study 
window,  and  it  was  a  great  comfort;  but  the  man  would  persist 
in  wanting  to  cut  it  down  when  he  mowed  the  lawn.     When  I 


THE  POINT  OF   VIEW  5 

remonstrated,  he  declared  that  it  was  nothing  but  burdock  ; 
but  I  insisted  that,  so  far  from  being  burdock,  it  was  really 
Lappa  major,  since  which  time  the  plant  and  its  offspring  have 
enjoyed  his  utmost  respect.  And  I  find  that  most  of  my  friends 
reserve  their  appreciation  of  a  plant  until  they  have  learned 
its  name  and  its  family  connections. 

The  dump-place  that  I  mentioned  has  a  surface  area  of  nearly 
one  hundred  and  fifty  square  feet,  and  I  find  that  it  has  grown 
over  two  hundred  good  plants  of  one  kind  or  another  this  year. 
This  is  more  than  my  gardener  accompHshed  on  an  equal  area, 
with  manure  and  water  and  a  man  to  help.  The  difference 
was  that  the  plants  on  the  dump  wanted  to  grow,  and  the 
imported  plants  in  the  garden  did  not  want  to  grow.  It  was 
the  difference  between  a  willing  horse  and  a  balky  horse.  If 
a  person  wants  to  show  his  skill,  he  may  choose  the  balky 
plant ;  but  if  he  wants  fun  and  comfort  in  gardening,  he  would 
better  choose  the  willing  one. 

I  have  never  been  able  to  find  out  when  the  burdocks  and 
mustard  were  planted  on  the  dump;  and  I  am  sure  that  they 
were  never  hoed  or  watered.  Nature  practices  a  wonderfully 
rigid  economy.  For  nearly  half  the  summer  she  even  refused 
rain  to  the  plants,  but  still  they  thrived;  yet  I  staid  home 
from  a  vacation  one  summer  that  I  might  keep  my  plants  from 
dying.  I  have  since  learned  that  if  the  plants  in  my  hardy 
borders  cannot  take  care  of  themselves  for  a  time,  they  are 
little  comfort  to  me. 

The  joy  of  garden-making  lies  in  the  mental  attitude  and  in 
the  sentiments. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  GENERAL  PLAN  OR  THEORY  OF  THE  PLACE 

Having  now  discussed  the  most  essential  elements  of  gar- 
dening, we  may  give  attention  to  such  minor  features  as  the 
actual  way  in  which  a  satisfying  garden  is  to  be  planned  and 
executed. 

Speaking  broadly,  a  person  will  get  from  a  garden  what  he 
puts  into  it;  and  it  is  of  the  first  importance,  therefore,  that  a 
clear  conception  of  the  work  be  formulated  at  the  outset.  I 
do  not  mean  to  say  that  the  garden  will  always  turn  out  what 
it  was  desired  that  it  should  be;  but  the  failure  to  turn  out 
properly  is  usually  some  fault  in  the  first  plan  or  some  neglect 
in  execution. 

Sometimes  the  disappointment  in  an  ornamental  garden  is  a 
result  of  confusion  of  ideas  as  to  what  a  garden  is  for.  One  of 
my  friends  was  greatly  disappointed  on  returning  to  his  garden 
early  in  September  to  find  that  it  was  not  so  full  and  floriferous 
as  when  he  left  it  in  July.  He  had  not  learned  the  simple  lesson 
that  even  a  flower-garden  should  exhibit  the  natural  progress 
of  the  season.  If  the  garden  begins  to  show  ragged  places  and 
to  decline  in  late  August  or  early  September,  it  is  what  occurs 
in  all  surrounding  vegetation.  The  year  is  maturing.  The 
garden  ought  to  express  the  feehng  of  the  different  months. 
The  failing  leaves  and  expended  plants  are  therefore  to  be 
looked  on,  to  some  extent  at  least,  as  the  natural  order  and  des- 
tiny of  a  good  garden. 

These  attributes  are  well  exhibited  in  the  vegetable-garden. 
In  the  spring,  the  vegetable-garden  is  a  model  of  neatness  and 


THE   GENERAL  PLAN   OR    THEORY  OF   THE  PLACE         7 

precision.  The  rows  are  straight.  There  are  no  missing  plants. 
The  earth  is  mellow  and  fresh.  Weeds  are  absent.  One 
takes  his  friends  to  the  garden,  and  he  makes  pictures  of  it. 
By  late  June  or  early  July,  the  plants  have  begun  to  sprawl 
and  to  get  out  of  shape.  The  bugs  have  taken  some  of  them. 
The  rows  are  no  longer  trim  and  precise.  The  earth  is  hot 
and  dry.  The  weeds  are  making  headway.  By  August  and 
September,  the  garden  has  lost  its  early  regularity  and  freshness. 
The  camera  is  put  aside.  The  visitors  are  not  taken  to  it: 
the  gardener  prefers  to  go  alone  to  find  the  melon  or  the 
tomatoes,  and  he  comes  away  as  soon  as  he  has  secured  his 
product.  Now,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  garden  has  been  going 
through  its  regular  seasonal  growth.  It  is  natural  that  it  be- 
come ragged.  It  is  not  necessary  that  weeds  conquer  it;  but 
I  suspect  that  it  would  be  a  very  poor  garden,  and  certainly 
an  uninteresting  one,  if  it  retained  the  dress  of  childhood  at 
the  time  when  it  should  develop  the  personalities  of  age. 

There  are  two  types  of  outdoor  gardening  in  which  the  prog- 
ress of  the  season  is  not  definitely  expressed,  —  in  the  carpet- 
bedding  kind,  and  in  the  subtropical  kind.  I  hope  that  my 
reader  will  get  a  clear  distinction  in  these  matters,  for  it  is 
exceedingly  important.  The  carpet-bedding  gardening  is 
the  making  of  figure-beds  in  house-leeks  and  achyranthes 
and  coleus  and  sanitaHa,  and  other  things  that  can  be  grown 
in  compact  masses  and  possibly  sheared  to  keep  them  within 
place  and  bounds;  the  reader  sees  these  beds  in  perfection  in 
some  of  the  parks  and  about  florists'  establishments;  he  will 
understand  at  once  that  they  are  not  meant  in  any  way  to  ex- 
press the  season,  for  the  difference  between  them  in  September 
and  June  is  only  that  they  may  be  more  perfect  in  September. 
The  subtropical  gardening  (plates  IV  and  V)  is  the  planting  out 
of  house-grown  stuff,  in  order  to  produce  given  effects,  of  such 
plants  as  palms,  dracenas,  crotons,  caladiums,  papyrus,  together 
with  such  luxuriant  things  as  dahlias  and  cannas  and  large 


8  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

ornamental  grasses  and  castor  beans;  these  plants  are  to  pro- 
duce effects  quite  foreign  to  the  expression  of  a  northern  land- 
scape, and  they  are  usually  at  their  best  and  are  most  luxuriant 
when  overtaken  by  the  fall  frosts. 

Now,  the  home  gardener  usually  relies  on  plants  that  more 
or  less  come  and  go  with  the  seasons.  He  pieces  out  and 
extends  the  season,  to  be  sure  ;  but  a  garden  with  pansies, 
pinks,  sweet  william,  roses,  sweet  peas,  petunias,  marigolds, 
salpiglossis,  sweet  sultan,  poppies,  zinnias,  asters,  cosmos, 
and  the  rest,  is  a  progress-of-the-season  garden,  nevertheless; 
and  if  it  is  a  garden  of  herbaceous  perennials,  it  still  more 
completely  expresses  the  time-of-year. 

My  reader  will  now  consider,  perhaps,  whether  he  would 
have  his  garden  accent  and  heighten  his  natural  year  from 
spring  to  fall,  or  whether  he  desires  to  thrust  into  his  year  a 
feeling  of  another  order  of  vegetation.  Either  is  allowable; 
but  the  gardener  should  distinguish  at  the  outset. 

I  wish  to  suggest  to  my  reader,  also,  that  it  is  possible  for 
the  garden  to  retain  some  interest  even  in  the  winter  months. 
I  sometimes  question  whether  it  is  altogether  wise  to  clear 
out  the  old  garden  stems  too  completely  and  too  smoothly  in 
the  fall,  and  thereby  obliterate  every  mark  of  it  for  the  winter 
months;  but  however  this  may  be,  there  are  two  ways  by 
which  the  garden  year  may  be  extended:  by  planting  things 
that  bloom  very  late  in  fall  and  others  that  bloom  very  early 
in  spring;  by  using  freely,  in  the  backgrounds,  of  bushes  and 
trees  that  have  interesting  winter  characters. 

The  plan  of  the  grounds  (see  Plate  II). 

One  cannot  expect  satisfaction  in  the  planting  and  develop- 
ing of  a  home  area  unless  he  has  a  clear  conception  of  what  is 
to  be  done.  This  necessarily  follows,  since  the  pleasure  that 
one  derives  from  any  enterprise  depends  chiefly  on  the  definite- 
ness  of  his  ideals  and  his  ability  to  develop  them.     The  home- 


The  plan  of  the  place.  The  arrangement  of  the  property  (which  is  in  New  Yorl 
determined  by  an  existing  woodland  to  the  left  or  southeast  of  the  house  and  a  nat 
opening  to  the  southwest  of  the  house.  The  house  is  colonial,  and  the  entire  treatr 
is  one  of  considerable  simplicity.  Wild  or  woodland  gardens  have  been  developed  to 
right  and  left  of  the  entrance,  the  latter  or  entrance  lawns  being  left  severely  simple 
plain  in  their  treatment.  To  the  rear  of  the  house  a  turf  terrace  raised  three  steps  al 
the  general  grade  of  the  lawn  leads  to  a  general  lawn  terminated  by  a  small  ga 
exedra  or  teahouse  with  a  fountain  in  its  center,  and  to  two  shrub  gardens  fori 
interesting  and  closed  pockets  of  lawn.  The  stable  and  vegetable  gardens  are  locate 
the  south  of  the  house  in  a  natural  opening  in  the  woodland.  The  design  is  made 
professional  landscape  architect. 


THE    GENERAL   PLAN   OR    THEORY   OF   THE  PLACE         9 

maker  should  develop  his  plan  before  he  attempts  to  develop 
his  place.  He  must  study  the  various  subdivisions  in  order 
that  the  premises  may  meet  all  his  needs.  He  should  determine 
the  locations  of  the  leading  features  of  the  place  and  the  rela- 
tive importance  to  be  given  to  the  various  parts  of  it,  -^  as 
of  the  landscape  parts,  the  ornamental  areas,  the  vegetable- 
garden,  and  the  fruit  plantation. 

The  details  of  the  planting  may  be  determined  in  part  as 
the  place  develops;  it  is  only  the  structural  features  and  pur- 
poses that  need  to  be  determined  beforehand  in  most  small 
properties.  The  incidental  modifications  that  may  be  made 
in  the  planting  from  time  to  time  keep  the  interest  alive  and 
allow  the  planter  to  gratify  his  desire  to  experiment  with  new 
plants  and  new  methods. 

It  must  be  understood  that  I  am  now  speaking  of  ordinary 
home  grounds  which  the  home-maker  desires  to  improve  by 
himself.  If  the  area  is  large  enough  to  present  distinct 
landscape  features,  it  is  always  best  to  employ  a  landscape 
architect  of  recognized  merit,  in  the  same  spirit  that  one 
would  employ  an  architect.  The  details,  however,  may  even 
then  be  filled  in  by  the  owner,  if  he  is  so  inclined,  following 
out  the  plan  that  the  landscape  architect  makes. 

It  is  desirable  to  have  a  definite  plan  on  paper  (drawn  to 
scale)  for  the  location  of  the  leading  features  of  the  place. 
These  features  are  the  residence,  the  out-houses,  the  walks  and 
drives,  the  service  areas  (as  clothes  yards),  the  border  planting, 
flower-garden,  vegetable-garden,  and  fruit-garden.  It  should 
not  be  expected .  that  the  map  plan  can  be  followed  in  every 
detail,  but  it  will  serve  as  a  general  guide;  and  if  it  is  made 
on  a  large  enough  scale,  the  different  kinds  of  plants  can  be 
located  in  their  proper  positions,  and  a  record  of  the  place  be 
kept.  It  is  nearly  always  unsatisfactory,  for  both  owner  and 
designer,  if  a  plan  of  the  place  is  made  without  a  personal 
inspection  of  the  area.     Lines  that  look  well  on  a  map  may  not 


10 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


adjust  themselves  readily  to  the  varying  contours  of  the  place 

itself,  and  the  location  of  the  features  inside  the  grounds  will 

depend  also  in  a  very  large  measure  on  the  objects  that  lie 
outside  it.  For  example,  all  interesting 
and  bold  views  should  be  brought  into  the 
place,  and  all  unsightly  objects  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  should  be  planted  out. 

A  plan  of  a  back  yard  of  a  narrow  city 
lot  is  given  in  Fig.  2,  showing  the  heavy 
border  planting  of  trees  and  shrubs,  with 
the  skirting  border  of  flowers.  In  the 
front  are  two  large  trees,  that  are  desired 
for  shade.  It  will  readily  be  seen  from  this 
plan  how  extensive  the  area  for  flowers 
becomes  when  they  are  placed  along  such 
a  devious  border.  More  color  effect  can 
be  got  from  such  an  arrangement  of  the 
flowers  than  could  be  secured  if  the  whole 

area  were  planted  to  flower-beds. 

A  contour  map  plan  of  a  very  rough  piece  of  ground  is  shown 

in  Fig.  3.     The  sides  of  the  place  are  high,  and  it  becomes 

necessary  to  carry  a  walk  through  the 

middle  area ;    and  on  either  side   of 

the  front,  it  skirts  the  banks.     Such 

a  plan  is  usually  unsightly  on  paper, 

but  may  nevertheless  fit  special  cases 

very  well.     The  plan  is  inserted  here 

for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  fact 

that  a   plan  that  will   work   on  the 

ground  does  not  necessarily  work  on 

a  map. 

In  charting  a  place,  it  is  important  to  locate  the  points  from 

which  the  walks  are  to  start,  and  at  which  they  are  to  emerge 

from  the  grounds.     These  two  points  are  then  joined  by  direct 


Diagram  of  a  back 
yard. 


3.    Plan  of  a  rough  area. 


THE   GENERAL   PLAN   OR   THEORY  OF   THE  PLACE       11 


and  simple  curves;  and  alongside  the  walks,  especially  in  an- 
gles or  bold  curves,  planting  may  be  inserted. 

A  suggestion  for  school  premises  on  a  four-corners,  and 
which  the  pupils  enter  from  three  directions,  is  made  in  Fig.  4. 
The  two  playgrounds  are  separated  by  a  broken  group  of 
bushes  extending  from  the  building  to  the  rear  boundary, 
but,  in  general,  the  spaces  are  kept  open,  and  the  heavy 
border-masses  clothe         |      • 

the  place  and  make  |      I     - 

it    home-like.      The  7?oarz 

lineal  extent  of  the 
group  margins  is  as- 
tonishingly large, 
and  along  all  these 
margins  flowers  may 
be  planted,  if  de- 
sired. 

If  there  is  only 
six  feet  between  a 
schoolhouse  and  the 
fence,  there  is  still 
room  for  a  border  of 
shrubs.  This  border 
should  be  between 
the  walk  and  the 
fence,  —  on  the  very  boundary,  — not  between  the  walk  and 
the  building,  for  in  the  latter  case  the  planting  divides  the 
premises  and  weakens  the  effect.  A  space  two  feet  wide  will 
allow  of  an  irregular  wall  of  bushes,  if  tall  buildings  do  not  cut 
out  the  light ;  and  if  the  area  is  one  hundred  feet  long,  thirty 
to  fifty  kinds  of  shrubs  and  flowers  can  be  grown  to  perfection, 
and  the  school-grounds  wifl  be  practically  no  smaller  for  the 
plantation. 

One  cannot  make  a  plan  of  a  place  until  he  knows  what  he 


4.   Suggestion  for  a  school-ground  on  a  four- 
corners. 


12  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

wants  to  do  with  the  property;  and  therefore  we  may  devote 
the  remainder  of  this  chapter  to  developing  the  idea  in  the  lay- 
out of  the  premises  rather  than  to  the  details  of  map-making 
and  planting. 

Because  I  speak  of  the  free  treatment  of  garden  spaces  in  this 
book  it  must  not  be  inferred  that  any  reflection  is  intended  on 
the  ''formal "  garden.  There  are  many  places  in  which  the  for- 
mal or  ''architect's  garden"  is  much  to  be  desired;  but  each 
of  these  cases  should  be  treated  wholly  by  itself  and  be  made  a 
part  of  the  architectural  setting  of  the  place.  These  ques- 
tions are  outside  the  sphere  of  this  book.  All  formal  gardens 
are  properly  individual  studies. 

All  very  special  types  of  garden  design  are  naturally  excluded 
from  a  book  of  this  kind,  such  types,  for  example,  as  Japanese 
gardening.  Persons  who  desire  to  develop  these  specialties  will 
secure  the  services  of  persons  who  are  skilled  in  them ;  and 
there  are  also  books  and  magazine  articles  to  which  they 
may  go. 

The  picture  in  the  landscape. 

The  deficiency  in  most  home  grounds  is  not  so  much  that 
there  is  too  little  planting  of  trees  and  shrubs  as  that  this  plant- 
ing is  meaningless.  Every  yard  should  be  a  picture.  That  is, 
the  area  should  be  set  off  from  other  areas,  and  it  should  have 
such  a  character  that  the  observer  catches  its  entire  effect  and 
purpose  without  stopping  to  analyze  its  parts.  The  yard  should 
be  one  thing,  one  area,  with  every  feature  contributing  its  part 
to  one  strong  and  homogeneous  effect. 

These  remarks  will  become  concrete  if  the  reader  turns  his  eye 
to  Figs.  5  and  6.  The  former  represents  a  common  type  of 
planting  of  front  yards.  The  bushes  and  trees  are  scattered 
promiscuously  over  the  area.  Such  a  yard  has  no  purpose,  no 
central  idea.  It  shows  plainly  that  the  planter  had  no  con- 
structive conception,  no  grasp  of  any  design,  and  no  apprecia- 


THE   GENERAL   PLAN   OR   THEORY  OF  THE  PLACE       13 


fcion  of  the  fundamental  elements  of  the  beauty  of  landscape. 
Its  only  merit  is  the  fact  that  trees  and  shrubg^  have  been 
planted;  and  this,  to  most  minds,  comprises  the  essence  and 
sum  of  the  ornamentation  of  grounds.  Every  tree  and  bush 
individual    alone,  . 


IS    an 

unattended,  disconnected 
from  its  environments, 
and,  therefore,  meaning- 
less. Such  a  yard  is  only 
a  nursery. 

The  other  plan  (Fig.  6) 
is  a  picture.  The  eye 
catches  its  meaning  at 
once.     The  central  idea  is 


^       ^ 


-^ 


^ 


<^  ^ 


5.  The  common  or  nursery  way  of 
planting. 


the  residence,  with  a  free  and  open  greensward  in  front  of  it, 
The  same  trees  and  bushes  that  were  scattered  haphazard  over 
Fig.  5  are  massed  into  a  framework  to  give  effectiveness  to  the 
picture  of  home  and  comfort.  This  style  of  planting  makes  a 
landscape,  even  though  the  area  be  no  larger  than  a  parlor. 
The  other  style  is  only  a  collection  of  curious  plants.    The  one 

has  an  instant  and 
abiding  pictorial  ef- 
fect, which  is  restful 
<^jif^^  -/^^^"^        ^^^  satisfying:  the 

S^'5^^y  @^^         observer    exclaims, 

''What  a  beautiful 
home  this  is!"  The 
other  piques  one's 
curiosity,  obscures 
the  residence,  di- 
What 
excellent  lilac  bushes  are  these  !" 

An  inquiry  into  the  causes  of  the  unlike  impressions  that  one 
receives  from  a  given  landscape  and  from  a  painting  of  it 


6.  The  proper  or  pictorial  type  of  planting. 

vides  and  distracts  the  attention :  the  observer  exclaims. 


14  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

explains  the  subject  admirably.  One  reason  why  the  picture 
appeals  to  us  more  than  the  landscape  is  because  the  picture 
is  condensed,  and  the  mind  becomes  acquainted  with  its  entire 
purpose  at  once,  while  the  landscape  is  so  broad  that  the 
individual  objects  at  first  fix  the  attention,  and  it  is  only  by  a 
process  of  synthesis  that  the  unity  of  the  landscape  finally  be- 
comes apparent.  This  is  admirably  illustrated  in  photographs. 
One  of  the  first  surprises  that  the  novice  experiences  in  the  use 
of  the  camera  is  the  discovery  that  very  tame  scenes  become  in- 
teresting and  often  even  spirited  in  the  photograph.  But  there 
is  something  more  than  mere  condensation  in  this  vitalizing  and 
beautifying  effect  of  the  photograph  or  the  painting:  individual 
objects  are  so  much  reduced  that  they  no  longer  appeal  to  us 
as  distinct  subjects,  and  however  uncouth  they  may  be  in  the 
reality,  they  make  no  impression  in  the  picture;  the  thin  and 
sere  sward  may  appear  rather  like  a  closely  shaven  lawn  or  a 
new-mown  meadow.  And  again,  the  picture  sets  a  limit  to  the 
scene;  it  frames  it,  and  thereby  cuts  off  all  extraneous  and  con- 
fusing or  irrelevant  landscapes. 

These  remarks  are  illustrated  in  the  aesthetics  of  landscape  gar- 
dening. It  is  the  artist's  one  desire  to  make  pictures  in  the  land- 
scape. This  is  done  in  two  ways :  by  the  form  of  plantations, 
and  by  the  use  of  vistas.  He  will  throw  his  plantations  into 
such  positions  that  open  and  yet  more  or  less  confined  areas 
of  greensward  are  presented  to  the  observer  at  various  points. 
This  picture-like  opening  is  nearly  or  quite  devoid  of  small  or  in- 
dividual objects,  which  usually  destroy  the  unity  of  such  areas 
and  are  meaningless  in  themselves.  A  vista  is  a  narrow  opening 
or  view  between  plantations  to  a  distant  landscape.  It  cuts  up 
the  broad  horizon  into  portions  that  are  readily  cognizable.  It 
frames  parts  of  the  country-side.  The  verdurous  sides  of  the 
planting  are  the  sides  of  the  frame ;  the  foreground  is  the  bottom, 
and  the  sky  is  the  top.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that 
good  views  be  left  or  secured  from  the  best  windows  of  the  house 


THE   GENERAL   PLAN   OR   THEORY  OF   THE  PLACE      15 

(not  forgetting  the  kitchen  window) ;  in  fact,  the  placing  of  the 
house  may  often  be  determined  by  the  views  that  may  be  ap- 
propriated. 

If  a  landscape  is  a  picture,  it  must  have  a  canvas.  This 
canvas  is  the  greensward.  Upon  this,  the  artist  paints  with 
tree  and  bush  and  flower  as  the  painter  does  upon  his  canvas  with 
brush  and  pigments.  The  opportunity  for  artistic  composition 
and  design  is  nowhere  so  great  as  in  the  landscape  garden,  be- 
cause no  other  art  has  such  a  limitless  field  for  the  expression 
of  its  emotions.  It  is  not  strange,  if  this  be  true,  that  there 
have  been  few  great  landscape  gardeners,  and  that,  falling  short 
of  art,  the  landscape  gardener  too  often  works  in  the  sphere  of 
the  artisan.  There  can  be  no  rules  for  landscape  gardening,  any 
more  than  there  can  be  for  painting  or  sculpture.  The  operator 
may  be  taught  how  to  hold  the  brush  or  strike  the  chisel  or 
plant  the  tree,  but  he  remains  an  operator;  the  art  is  intellec- 
tual and  emotional  and  will  not  confine  itself  in  precepts. 

The  making  of  a  good  and  spacious  lawn,  then,  is  the  very 
first  practical  consideration  in  a  landscape  garden. 

The  lawn  provided,  the  gardener  conceives  what  is  the  domi- 
nant and  central  feature  in  the  place,  and  then  throws  the  entire 
premises  into  subordination  to  this  feature.  In  home  grounds 
this  central  feature  is  the  house.  To  scatter  trees  and  bushes 
over  the  area  defeats  the  fundamental  purpose  of  the  place, — 
the  purpose  to  make  every  part  of  the  grounds  lead  up  to  the 
home  and  to  accentuate  its  homelikeness. 

A  house  must  have  a  background  if  it  is  to  become  a  home. 
A  house  that  stands  on  a  bare  plain  or  hill  is  a  part  of  the  universe, 
not  a  part  of  a  home.  Recall  the  cozy  little  farm-house  that  is 
backed  by  a  wood  or  an  orchard;  then  compare  some  pretentious 
structure  that  stands  apart  from  all  planting.  Yet  how  many 
are  the  farm-houses  that  stand  as  stark  and  cold  against  the  sky 
as  if  they  were  competing  with  the  moon!  We  would  not  be- 
lieve it  possible  for  a  man  to  five  in  a  house  twenty-five  years  and 


16 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


not,  by  accident,  allow  some  tree  to  grow,  were  it  not  that  it 
is  so! 

Of  course  these  remarks  about  the  lawn  are  meant  for  those 
countries  where  greensward  is  the  natural  ground  cover.  In 
the  South  and  in  arid  countries,  greensward  is  not  the  prevail- 
ing feature  of  the  landscape,  and  in.  these  regions  the  landscape 
design  may  take  on  a  wholly  different  character,  if  the  work  is 
to  be  nature-hke.  We  have  not  yet  developed  other  concep- 
tions of  landscape  work  to  any  perfect  extent,  and  we  inject  the 


m^^m\^ 


A  house. 


English  greensward  treatment  even  into  deserts.  We  may 
look  for  the  time  when  a  brown  landscape  garden  may  be  made 
in  a  brown  country ;  and  it  may  be  good  art  not  to  attempt  a 
broad  open  center  in  regions  in  which  undergrowth  rather  than 
sod  is  the  natural  ground  cover.  In  parts  of  the  United  States 
we  are  developing  a  good  Spanish-American  architecture ;  per- 
haps we  may  develop  a  recognized  comparable  landscape  treat- 
ment as  an  artistic  expression. 


Birds;  and  cats. 

The  picture  in  the  landscape  is  not  complete  without  birds, 
and   the   birds  should    comprise   more   species   than   Enghsh 


THE   GENERAL   PLAN   OR   THEORY  OF   THE  PLACE      17 


sparrows.  If  one  is  to  have  birds  on  his  premises,  he  must 
(1)  attract  them  and  (2)  protect  them. 

One  attracts  birds  by  providing  places  in  which  they  may 
nest.  The  free  border  plantings  have  distinct  advantages  in 
attracting  chipping  sparrows,  catbirds,  and  other  species.  The 
bluebirds,  house  wrens,  and  martins  may  be  attracted  by 
boxes  in  which  they  can  build. 

One  may  attract  birds  by  feeding  them  and  supplying  water. 
Suet  for  woodpeckers  and  others,  grain  and  crumbs  for  other 


8.   A  home. 


kinds,  and  taking  care  not  to  frighten  or  molest  them,  will  soon 
win  the  confidence  of  the  birds.  A  slowly  running  or  dripping 
fountain,  with  a  good  rim  on  which  they  may  perch,  will  also 
attract  them;  and  it  is  no  mean  enjoyment  to  watch  the 
birds  at  bathing.  Or,  if  one  does  not  care  to  go  to  the  ex- 
pense of  a  bird  fountain,  he  may  supply  their  wants  by  means 
of  a  shallow  dish  of  water  set  on  the  lawn. 

The  birds  will  need  protection  from  cats.  There  is  no  more 
reason  why  cats  should  roam  at  will  and  uncontrolled  than  that 
dogs  or  horses  or  poultry  should  be  allowed  unlimited  license. 
A  cat  away  from  home  is  a  trespasser  and  should  be  so  treated. 


18  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

A  person  has  no  more  right  to  inflict  a  cat  on  a  neighborhood  than 
to  inflict  a  goat  or  rabbits  or  any  other  nuisance.  All  persons 
who  keep  cats  should  feel  the  same  responsibility  for  them  that 
they  feel  for  other  property;  and  they  should  be  wiUing  to  for- 
feit their  property  right  when  they  forfeit  their  control.  The 
cats  not  only  destroy  birds,  but  they  break  the  peace.  The 
caterwauling  at  night  will  not  be  permitted  in  well-governed 
communities  any  more  than  the  shooting  of  fire-arms  or  vicious 
talking  will  be  allowed:  all  night-roaming  cats  should  be  gath- 
ered in,  just  as  stray  dogs  and  tramps  are  provided  for. 

I  do  not  dislike  cats,  but  I  desire  to  see  them  kept  at  home  and 
within  control.  If  persons  say  that  they  cannot  keep  them  on 
their  own  premises,  then  these  persons  should  not  be  allowed  to 
have  them.  A  bell  on  the  cat  will  prevent  it  from  capturing  old 
birds,  and  this  may  answer  a  good  purpose  late  in  the  season; 
but  it  will  not  stop  the  robbing  of  nests  or  the  taking  of  young 
birds,  and  here  is  where  the  greatest  havoc  is  wrought. 

It  is  often  asserted  that  cats  must  roam  in  order  that  rats 
and  mice  may  be  reduced ;  but  probably  few  house  mice  and 
few  rats  are  got  by  wandering  cats  ;  and,  again,  many  cats  are 
not  mousers.  There  are  other  ways  of  controlling  rats  and 
mice  ;  or  if  cats  are  employed  for  this  purpose,  see  that  they 
are  restricted  to  the  places  where  the  house  rats  and  mice  are 
to  be  found. 

Many  persons  Hke  squirrels  about  the  place,  but  they  cannot 
expect  to  have  both  birds  and  squirrels  unless  very  special  pre- 
cautions are  taken. 

The  English  or  house  sparrow  drives  away  the  native  birds, 
although  he  is  himself  an  attractive  inhabitant  in  winter, 
particularly  where  native  birds  are  not  resident.  If  one  de- 
sires to  keep  English  sparrows  in  reduced  numbers,  it  can  be 
easily  accomplished  by  poisoning  them  in  winter  (when  other 
birds  are  not  endangered)  with  wheat  soaked  in  strychnine 
water.     The  contents  of  one  of  the  eighth -ounce  vials  of  strych- 


THE    GENERAL   PLAN   OR    THEORY   OF    THE   PLACE       19 

nine  that  may  be  secured  at  a  drug  store  is  added  to  sufficient 
water  to  cover  a  quart  of  wheat.  Let  the  wheat  stand  in  the 
poison  water  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours  (but  not  long 
enough  for  the  grains  to  sprout),  then  dry  the  wheat  thoroughly. 
It  cannot  be  distinguished  from  ordinary  wheat,  and  sparrows 
usually  eat  it  freely,  particularly  if  they  are  in  the  habit  of  eat- 
ing scattered  grain  and  crumbs.  Of  course,  the  greatest  cau- 
tion must  be  exercised  that  in  the  use  of  such  highly  poisonous 
materials,  accidents  do  not  occur  with  other  animals  or  with 
human  beings. 

The  planting  is  yart  of  the  design  or  picture. 

If  the  reader  catches  the  full  meaning  of  these  pages,  he  has 
acquired  some  of  the  primary  conceptions  in  landscape  garden- 
ing. The  suggestion  will  grow  upon  him  da}^  by  day ;  and  if  he  is 
of  an  observing  turn  of  mind,  he  will  find  that  this  simple  lesson 
will  revolutionize  his  habit  of  thought  respecting  the  planting 
of  grounds  and  the  beauty  of  landscapes.  He  will  see  that  a  bush 
or  flower-bed  that  is  no  part  of  any  general  purpose  or  design  ^ 
that  is,  which  does  not  contribute  to  the  making  of  a  picture 
—  might  better  never  have  been  planted.  For  myself,  I  would 
rather  have  a  bare  and  open  pasture  than  such  a  yard  as  that 
sho^vn  in  Fig.  9,  even  though  it  contained  the  choicest  plants 
of  every  land.  The  pasture  w^ould  at  least  be  plain  and  restful 
and  unpretentious;  but  the  yard  would  be  full  of  effort  and 
fidget. 

Reduced  to  a  single  expression,  all  this  means  that  the  great- 
est artistic  value  in  planting  Hes  in  the  effect  of  the  mass,  and 
not  in  the  individual  plant.  A  mass  has  the  greater  value 
because  it  presents  a  much  greater  range  and  variety  of  forms, 
colors,  shades,  and  textures,  because  it  has  sufficient  extent  or 
dimensions  to  add  structural  character  to  a  place,  and  because 
its  features  are  so  continuous  and  so  well  blended  that  the  mind 
is  not   distracted   by  incidental   and  irrelevant  ideas.     Two 


THE   GENERAL  PLAN   OR   THEORY  OF   THE  PLACE      21 


pictures  will  illustrate  all  this.      Figures  10,  11  are  pictures  of 
natural  copses.     The  former  stretches  along  a  field  and  makes  a 


10.  A  native  fence-row. 


lawn  of  a  bit  of  meadow  which  lies  in  front  of  it.  The  landscape 
has  become  so  small  and  so  well  defined  by  this  bank  of  verdure 
that  it  has  a  familiar  and  personal  feeling.  The  great,  bare, 
open  meadows  are  too 
ill-defined  and  too  ex- 
tended to  give  any  do- 
mestic feehng;  but  here 
is  a  part  of  the  meadow 
set  off  into  an  area 
that  one  can  compass 
with  his  affections. 

These   masses  in 
Figs.   10,   11,  and    12 
have  their  own  intrin- 
sic merits,  as  well  as  their  office  in  defining  a  bit  of  nature.    One 
is  attracted  by  the  freedom  of  arrangement,  the  irregularity  of 


11.    Birds  build  their  nests  here. 


','X^.,:1| 


\ 


..N^^m        fii 


THE   GENERAL  PLAN   OR    THEORY  OF   THE  PLACE      23 

sky-line,  the  bold  bays  and  promontories,  and  the  infinite  play 
of  light  and  shade.  The  observer  is  interested  in  each  because 
it  has  character,  or  features,  that  no  other  mass  in  all  the  world 
possesses.  He  knows  that  the  birds  build  their  nests  in  the 
tangle  and  the  rabbits  find  it  a  covert. 

Now  let  the  reader  turn  to  Fig.  9,  which  is  a  picture  of  an 
*' improved"  city  yard.  Here  there  is  no  structural  outline  to 
the  planting,  no  defining  of  the  area,  no  continuous  flow  of  the 


vy,..i 


■^m 


13.  An  open  treatment  of  a  school-ground.    More  trees  might  be  placed  in  the 

area,  if  desired. 


form  and  color.  Every  bush  is  what  every  other  one  is  or  may 
be,  and  there  are  hundreds  like  them  in  the  same  town.  The 
birds  shun  them.  Only  the  bugs  find  any  happiness  in  them. 
The  place  has  no  fundamental  design  or  idea,  no  lawn  upon 
which  a  picture  may  be  constructed.  This  yard  is  like  a 
sentence  or  a  conversation  in  which  every  word  is  equally 
emphasized. 

In  bold  contrast  with  this  yard  is  the  open-center  treatment 
in  Fig.  13.   Here  there  is  pictorial  effect;  and  there  is  opportu- 


24 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


nity  along  the  borders  to  distribute  trees  and  shrubs  that  may 

be  desired  as  individual  specimens. 

The  motive  that  shears  the  trees  also  razes  the  copse,  in  order 

that  the  gardener  or  ''improver"  may  show  his  art.     Compare 

j^f^  Figs.  14  and  15.  Many 
persons  seem  to  fear  that 
they  will  never  be  known 
to  the  world  unless  they 
expend  a  great  amount  of 
muscle  or  do  something 
emphatic  or  spectacular; 
and  their  fears  are  usually 
well  founded. 

It  is  not  enough  that 
trees  and  bushes  be  planted 
in  masses.  They  must  be 
kept  in  masses  by  letting 


14.   A  rill  much  as  nature  made  it. 

them  grow  freely  in  a  natu- 
ral way.  The  pruning- 
knif  e  is  the  most  inveterate 
enemy  of  shrubbery.  Pic- 
tures 16  and  17  illustrate 
what  I  mean.  The  former 
represents  a  good  group  of 
bushes  so  far  as  arrange- 
ment is  concerned,  but  it 
has  been  ruined  by  the 
shears.  The  attention  of 
the  observer  is  instantly  arrested  by  the  individual  bushes. 
Instead  of  one  free  and  g|Pij^§iiVit'J^ci  there  are  several  stiff 

A.  ^  E.  coll-eiqe: 


15.   A  rill  "improved,"  so  that  it  will  not 
look  "ragged"  and  unkempt. 


THE   GENERAL   PLAN   OR    THEORY  OF   THE  PLACE       2li 

and  expressionless  ones.     If  the  observer  stops  to  consider  his 
own  thoughts  when  he  comes  upon  such  a  collection,  he  will 


IG.   The  making  of  a  good  group,  but  spoiled  by  the  pruning  shears. 

likely  find  himself  counting  the  bushes;    or,  at  least,  he  will 
be  making  mental  comparisons  of  the  various  bushes,  and 


III 


17.   The  three  guardsmen. 

wondering  why  they  are  not  all  sheared  to  be  exactly  alike. 
Figure  17  shows  how  the  same  ^'artist"  has  treated  two  deut- 


26 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


zias  and  a  juniper.  Much  the  same  effect  could  have  been 
secured,  and  with  much  less  trouble,  by  laying  two  flour  barrels 
end  to  end  and  standing  a  third  one  between  them. 

I  must  hasten 
to  say  that  I  have 
not  the  shghtest 
objection  to  the 
shearing  of  trees. 
The  only  trouble 
is  in  calling  the 
practice  art  and 
in  putting  the 
trees  where  peo- 
ple must  see  them 
(unless  they  are 
part  of  a  recog- 
nized formal-gar- 
den design) .  If 
the  operator  sim- 
ply calls  the  busi- 
ness shearing,  and 
puts  the  things 
where  he  and  oth- 
ers who  like  them 
may  see  them, 
objection  could 
not      be     raised. 

18.   A  bit  of  semi-rustic  work  built  into  a  native  growth,     r^  ^•^  ^ 

^  Some  persons  like 

painted  stones,  others  iron  bulldogs  in  the  front  yard  and 
the  word  '' welcome"  worked  into  the  door-mat,  and  others 
like  barbered  trees.  So  long  as  these  hkes  are  purely  per- 
sonal, it  would  seem  to  be  better  taste  to  put  such  curiosities 
in  the  back  yard,  where  the  owner  may  admire  them  without 
molestation. 


THS   GENERAL   PLAN   OR   THEORY  OF   THE  PLACE       27 

There  is  a  persistent  desire  among  workmen  to  shear  and  to 
trim :  it  displays  their  industry.  It  is  a  great  thing  to  be  able 
to  allow  the  freedom  of  nature  to  remain.  The  artist  often 
builds  his  structures  into  a  native  planting  (as  in  Fig.  18)  rather 
than  to  trust  himself  to  produce  a  good  result  by  planting  on 
razed  surfaces. 

In  this  discussion,  I  have  tried  to  enforce  the  importance  of 
the  open  center  in  non-formal  home  grounds  in  greensward 
regions.  Of  course  this  does  not  mean  that  there  may  not  be 
central  planting  in  particular  cases  where  the  conditions  dis- 
tinctly call  for  it  nor  that  there  may  not  be  trees  on  the  lawn. 
If  one  has  the  placing  of  the  trees,  he  may  see  that  they  are  not 
scattered  aimlessly;  but  if  good  trees  are  already  growing  on 
the  place,  it  would  be  folly  to  think  of  removing  them  merely 
because  they  are  not  in  the  best  ideal  positions;  in  such  case,  it 
may  be  very  necessary  to  adapt  the  treatment  of  the  area  to  the 
trees.  The  home-maker  should  always  consider,  also,  the  plant- 
ing of  a  few  trees  in  such  places  as  to  shade  and  protect  the  resi- 
dence :  the  more  closely  they  can  be  made  a  part  of  the  general 
design  or  handling  of  the  place,  the  better  the  results  will  be. 

The  flower-growing  should  be  part  of  the  design. 

I  do  not  mean  to  discourage  the  use  of  brilliant  flowers  and 
bright  foHage  and  striking  forms  of  vegetation;  but  these  things 
are  never  primary  considerations  in  a  good  domain.  The  struc- 
tural elements  of  the  place  are  designed  first.  The  flanking  and 
bordering  masses  are  then  planted.  Finally  the  flowers  and 
accessories  are  put  in,  as  a  house  is  painted  after  it  is  built. 
Flowers  appear  to  best  advantage  when  seen  against  a  back- 
ground of  fohage,  and  they  are  then,  also,  an  integral  part  of 
the  picture.  The  flower-garden,  as  such,  should  be  at  the  rear  or 
side  of  a  place,  as  all  other  personal  appurtenances  are;  but 
flowers  and  bright  leaves  may  be  freely  scattered  along  the 
borders  and  near  the  foliage  masses. 


28  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

It  is  a  common  saying  that  many  persons  have  no  love  oi 
appreciation  of  flowers,  but  it  is  probably  nearer  to  the  truth  to 
say  that  no  person  is  wholly  lacking  in  this  respect.  Even  those 
persons  who  declare  that  they  care  nothing  for  flowers  are  gen- 
erally deceived  by  their  dislike  of  flower-beds  and  the  conven- 
tional methods  of  flower-growing.  I  know  many  persons  who 
stoutly  deny  any  liking  for  flowers,  but  who,  nevertheless,  are 
rejoiced  with  the  blossoming  of  the  orchards  and  the  purpling 
of  the  clover  fields.  The  fault  may  not  lie  so  much  with  the 
persons  themselves  as  with  the  methods  of  growing  and  display- 
ing the  flowers. 

Defects  in  flower-growing. 

The  greatest  defect  with  our  flower-growing  is  the  stinginess 
of  it.  We  grow  our  flowers  as  if  they  were  the  choicest  rarities, 
to  be  coddled  in  a  hotbed  or  under  a  bell-jar,  and  then  to  be  ex- 
hibited as  single  specimens  in  some  little  pinched  and  ridiculous 
hole  cut  in  the  turf,  or  perched  upon  an  ant-hill  that  some 
gardener  has  laboriously  heaped  on  a  lawn.  Nature,  on  the 
other  hand,  grows  many  of  her  flowers  in  the  most  luxurious 
abandon,  and  one  can  pick  an  armful  without  offense.  She 
grows  her  flowers  in  earnest,  as  a  man  grows  a  crop  of  corn. 
One  can  revel  in  the  color  and  the  fragrance  and  be  satisfied. 

The  next  defect  with  our  flower-growing  is  the  flower-bed. 
Nature  has  no  time  to  make  flower-bed  designs:  she  is  busy 
growing  flowers.  And,  then,  if  she  were  given  to  flower-beds, 
the  whole  effect  would  be  lost,  for  she  could  no  longer  be  luxu- 
rious and  wanton,  and  if  a  flower  were  picked  her  whole 
scheme  might  be  upset.  Imagine  a  geranium-bed  or  a  coleus- 
bed,  with  its  wonderful  '' design,"  set  out  into  a  wood  or  in  a 
free  and  open  landscape!     Even  the  birds  would  laugh  at  it! 

What  I  want  to  say  is  that  we  should  grow  flowers  freely 
when  we  make  a  flower-garden.  We  should  have  enough  of  them 
to  make  the  effort  worth  the  while.     I  sympathize  with  the 


THE   GENERAL   PLAN   OR    THEORY  OF   THE  PLACE      29 

man  who  likes  sunflowers.  There  are  enough  of  them  to  be  worth 
looking  at.  They  fill  the  eye.  Now  show  this  man  ten  feet 
square  of  pinks  or  asters,  or  daisies,  all  growing  free  and  easy  and 
he  will  tell  you  that  he  likes  them.  All  this  has  a  particular  ap- 
plication to  the  farmer,  who  is  often  said  to  dislike  flowers. 
He  grows  potatoes  and  buckwheat  and  weeds  by  the  acre :  two 
or  three  unhappy  pinks  or  geraniums  are  not  enough  to  make 
^n  impression. 

Lawn  flower-beds. 

The  easiest  way  to  spoil  a  good  lawn  is  to  put  a  flower-bed  in  it; 
and  the  most  effective  way  in  which  to  show  off  flowers  to  the 


'""'  ..illlKid.jfi.,)!.. 


i<i  (I....  i 


■.HlHu.,l!ll'lt"«MII(l|.V... 

19.   Hole-iii-tiie-ground  gardening. 

least  advantage  is  to  plant  them  in  a  bed  in  the  greensward. 
Flowers  need  a  background.  We  do  not  hang  our  pictures  on 
fence-posts.  If  flowers  are  to  be  grown  on  a  lawn,  let  them  be  of 
the  hardy  kind,  which  can  be  naturalized  in  the  sod  and  which 
grow  freely  in  the  tall  unmown  grass;  or  else  perennials  of  such 
nature  that  they  make  attractive  clumps  by  themselves.  Lawns 
should  be  free  and  generous,  but  the  more  they  are  cut  up  and 
worried  with  trivial  effects,  the  smaller  and  meaner  they  look. 

But  even  if  we  consider  these  lawn  flower-beds  wholly  apart 
from  their  surroundings,  we  must  admit  that  they  are  at  best 


30  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

unsatisfactory.  It  generally  amounts  to  this,  that  we  have  four 
months  of  sparse  and  downcast  vegetation,  one  month  of  limp 
and  frost-bitten  plants,  and  seven  months  of  bare  earth  (Fig.  19). 
I  am  not  now  opposing  the  carpet-beds  which  professional  gar- 
deners make  in  parks  and  other  museums.  I  Hke  museums, 
and  some  of  the  carpet-beds  and  set  pieces  are  '' fearfully  and 
wonderfully  made"  (see  Fig.  20).     I  am  directing  my  remarks 


,v"4 


20.   Worth  paying  admittance  price  to  see  ! 

to  those  humble  home-made  flower-beds  that  are  so  common  in 
lawns  of  country  and  city  homes  alike.  These  beds  are  cut  from 
the  good  fresh  turf,  often  in  the  most  fantastic  designs,  and  are 
filled  with  such  plants  as  the  women  of  the  place  may  be  able 
to  carry  over  in  cellars  or  in  the  window.  The  plants  them- 
selves may  look  very  well  in  pots,  but  when  they  are  turned 
out  of  doors,  they  have  a  sorry  time  for  a  month  adapting 
themselves  to  the  sun  and  winds,  and  it  is  generally  well  on 
towards  midsummer  before  they  begin  to  cover  the  earth. 
During  all  these  weeks  they  have  demanded  more  time  and 


THE   GENERAL   PLAN   OR    THEORY  OF   THE  PLACE       31 


labor  than  would  have  been  needed  to  care  for  a  plantation  of 
much  greater  size  and  which  would  have  given  flowers  every 
day  from  the  time  the  birds  began  to  nest  in  the  spring  until 
the  last  robin  had  flown  in  November. 


Flower-borders. 


We    should 
flower-border, 
spoken  sets  bounds 
one's  own.   The  per- 
on  it.     Along  these 
by    the    corners    of 
the  residence  or  in 
front  of  porches  — 
these  are  places  for 
flowers.   Ten  flow- 
ers against 


acquire    the 
The  border 


habit  of  speaking  of  the 
planting  of  which  we  have 
to  the  place,  and  makes  it 
son  lives  inside  his  place,  not 
borders,  against  groups,  often 


21.   An  artist's  flower - 
border. 


a  background  are  more 
effective  than  a  hundred 
in  the  open  yard. 

I  have  asked  a  professional  artist,  Mr.  Mathews,  to  draw  me 
the  kind  of  a  flower-bed  that  he  likes.     It  is  shown  in  Fig.  21. 


32 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


It  is  a  border,  —  a  strip  of  land  two  or  three  feet  wide  along 
a  fence.     This  is  the  place  where  pigweeds  usually  grow.     Here 


1.,.-  •*;, 


.uriysfe^^^S 


22.   Petunias  against  a  back- 
ground of  osiers. 

he  has  planted  marigolds,  gladiolus,  golden  rod,  wild  asters, 
China  asters,  and  —  best  of  all  —  hollyhocks.     Any  one  would 


23.   A  sowing  of  flowers  along  a  marginal  planting. 

like  that  flower-garden.     It  has  some  of  that  local  and  indefin- 
able charm  that  always  attaches  to  an  ''old-fashioned  garden" 


THE   GENERAL  PLAN   OR   THEORY  OF   THE  PLACE      33 

with  its  medley  of  form  and  color.  Nearly  every  yard  has  some 
such  strip  of  land  along  a  rear  walk  or  fence  or  against  a  build- 
ing.    It  is  the  easiest  thing  to  plant  it,  —  ever  so  much  easier 


24.   An  open  back  yard.     Flowers  may  be  thrown  in  freely  along  the  borders, 
but  they  would  spoil  the  lawn  if  placed  in  its  center. 

than  digging  the  characterless  geranium  bed  into  the  center 
of  an  inoffensive  lawn.  The  suggestions  are  carried  further  in 
Figs.  22  to  25. 


25.  A  flower-garden  at  the  rear  or  one  side  of  the  place. 


34  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

The  old-fashioned  garden. 

Speaking  of  the  old-fashioned  garden  recalls  one  of  William 
Falconer's  excellent  paragraphs  ('^Gardening,"  November  15, 
1897,  p.  75):  '' We  tried  it  in  Schenley  Park  this  year.  We  needed 
a  handy  dumping  ground,  and  hit  on  the  head  of  a  deep  ravine 
between  two  woods;  into  it  we  dumped  hundreds  upon  hun- 
dreds of  wagon  loads  of  rock  and  clay,  filling  it  near  to  the  top, 
then  surfaced  it  with  good  soil.  Here  we  planted  some  shrubs, 
and  broadcast  among  them  set  out  scarlet  poppies,  eschscholzias, 
dwarf  nasturtiums,  snapdragons,  pansies,  marigolds,  and  all 
manner  of  hardy  herbaceous  plants,  having  enough  of  each  sort 
to  make  a  mass  of  its  kind  and  color,  and  the  effect  was  fine. 
In  the  middle  was  a  plantation  of  hundreds  of  clumps  of  Japan 
and  German  irises  interplanted,  thence  succeeded  by  thousands 
of  gladioh,  and  banded  with  montbretias,  from  which  we  had 
flowers  till  frost.  The  steep  face  of  this  hill  was  graded  a  lit- 
tle and  a  series  of  winding  stone  steps  set  into  it,  making  the 
descent  into  the  hollow  quite  easy;  the  stones  were  the  rough 
uneven  slabs  secured  in  blasting  the  rocks  when  grading  in  other 
parts  of  the  park,  and  both  along  outer  edges  of  the  steps 
and  the  sides  of  the  upper  walk  a  wide  belt  of  moss  pink  was 
planted;  and  the  banks  all  about  were  planted  with  shrubs, 
vines,  wild  roses,  columbines,  and  other  plants.  More  cameras 
and  kodaks  were  leveled  by  visitors  at  this  piece  of  gardening 
than  at  any  other  spot  in  the  park,  and  still  we  had  acres  of 
painted  summer  beds." 

Contents  of  the  flower-borders. 

There  is  no  prescribed  rule  as  to  what  one  should  put  into  these 
informal  flower-borders.  Put  in  them  the  plants  you  like. 
Perhaps  the  greater  part  of  them  should  be  perennials  that  come 
up  of  themselves  every  spring,  and  that  are  hardy  and  reliable. 
Wild  flowers  are  particularly  effective.     Every  one  knows  that 


THE   GENERAL  PLAN   OR   THEORY   OF   THE  PLACE      35 

many  of  the  native  herbs  of  woods  and  glades  are  more  attract- 
ive than  some  of  the  most  prized  garden  flowers.  The  greater 
part  of  these  native  flowers  grow  readily  in  cultivation,  some- 
times even  in  places  which,  in  soil  and  exposure,  are  much  un- 
like their  native  haunts.  Many  of  them  make  thickened  roots, 
and  they  may  be  safely  transplanted  at  any  time  after  the 
flowers  have  passed.  To  most  persons  the  wild  flowers  are 
less  known  than  many  exotics  that  have  smaller  merit,  and 
the  extension  of  cultivation  is  constantly  tending  to  annihilate 
them.  Here,  then,  in  the  informal  flower-border,  is  an  oppor- 
tunity to  rescue  them.  Then  one  may  sow  in  freely  of  easy- 
growing  annuals,  as  marigolds,  China  asters,  petunias  and 
phloxes,  and  sweet  peas. 

One  of  the  advantages  of  these  borders  lying  at  the  boundary 
is  that  they  are  always  ready  to  receive  more  plants,  unless 
they  are  full.  That  is,  their  symmetry  is  not  marred  if  some 
plants  are  pulled  out  and  others  are  put  in.  And  if  the  weeds 
now  and  then  get  a  start,  very  little  harm  is  done.  Such  a 
border  half  full  of  weeds  is  handsomer  than  the  average  hole-in- 
the-lawn  geranium  bed.  An  ample  border  may  receive  wild 
plants  every  month  in  the  year  when  the  frost  is  out  of  the 
ground.  Plants  are  dug  in  the  woods  or  fields,  whenever  one 
is  on  an  excursion,  even  if  in  July.  The  tops  are  cut  off,  the 
roots  kept  moist  until  they  are  placed  in  the  border;  most  of 
these  much-abused  plants  will  grow.  To  be  sure,  one  will  secure 
some  weeds;  but  then,  the  weeds  are  a  part  of  the  collection!  Of 
course,  some  plants  will  resent  this  treatment,  but  the  border 
may  be  a  happy  family,  and  be  all  the  better  and  more  personal 
because  it  is  the  result  of  moments  of  relaxation.  Such  a  border 
has  something  new  and  interesting  every  month  of  the  growing 
season;  and  even  in  the  winter  the  tall  clumps  of  grasses  and 
aster-stems  hold  their  banners  above  the  snow  and  are  a  source 
of  delight  to  every  frolicsome  bevy  of  snowbirds. 

I  have  spoken  of  a  weedland  to  suggest  how  simple  and  easy 


36 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


a  thing  it  is  to  make  an  attractive  mass-plantation.  One  may 
make  the  most  of  a  rock  (Fig.  26)  or  bank,  or  other  undesirable 
feature  of  the  place.  Dig  up  the  ground  and  make  it  rich,  and 
then  set  plants  in  it.  You  will  not  get  it  to  suit  you  the  first 
year,  and  perhaps  not  the  second  or  the  third;  you  can  always 
pull  out  plants  and  put  more  in.  I  should  not  want  a  lawn- 
garden  so  perfect  that  I  could  not  change  it  in  some  char- 
acter each  year;  I  should  lose  interest  in  it. 


26.   Making  the  most  of  a  rock. 


It  must  not  be  understood  that  I  am  speaking  only  for  mixed 
borders.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  much  better  in  most  cases  that 
each  border  or  bed  be  dominated  by  the  expression  of  one  kind 
of  flower  or  bush.  In  one  place  a  person  may  desire  a  wild  aster 
effect,  or  a  petunia  effect,  or  a  larkspur  effect,  or  a  rhododendron 
effect;  or  it  may  be  desirable  to  run  heavily  to  strong  foliage 
effects  in  one  direction  and  to  light  flower  effects  in  another. 
The  mixed  border  is  rather  more  a  flower-garden  idea  than  a 
landscape  idea;  when  it  shall  be  desirable  to  emphasize  the  one 
and  when  the  other,  cannot  be  set  down  in  a  book. 


THE   GENERAL   PLAN   OR    THEORY  OF   THE   PLACE       37 


The  value  of  plants  may  lie  in  foliage  and  form  rather  than  in 
bloom. 

What  kinds  of  shrubs  and  flowers  to  plant  is  a  wholly  second- 
ary and  largely  a  personal  consideration.  The  main  plantings 
are  made  up  of  hardy  and  vigorous  species;  then  the  things  that 
you  like  are  added.  There  is  endless  choice  in  the  species,  but 
the  arrangement  or  disposition  of  the  plants  is  far  more  impor- 
tant than  the  kinds;  and  the  foliage  and  form  of  the  plant  are 
usually  of  more  importance  than  its  bloom. 

The  appreciation  of  foliage  effects  in  the  landscape  is  a  higher 
type  of  feeling  than  the  desire  for  mere  color.  Flowers  are 
transitory,  but  foliage  and  plant  forms  are  abiding.  The  com- 
mon roses  have  very  little  value  for  landscape  planting  be- 
cause the  foliage  and  habit  of  the  rose-bush  are  not  attractive, 
the  leaves  are  inveterately  attacked  by  bugs,  and  the  blossoms 
are  fleeting.  Some  of  the  wild  roses  and  the  Japanese  Rosa 
rugosa,  however,  have  distinct  merit  for  mass  effects. 

Even  the  common  flowers,  as  marigold,  zinnias,  and  gaillardias, 
are  interesting  as  plant-forms  long  before  they  come  into  bloom. 
To  many  persons  the  most 
satisfying  epoch  in  the  gar- 
den is  that  preceding  the 
bloom,  for  the  habits  and 
stature  of  the  plants  are 
then  unobscured.  The  early 
stages  of  lilies,  daffodils,  and 
all  perennials  are  most  in- 
teresting; and  one  never 
appreciates  a  garden  until 
he  reaHzes  that  this  is  so. 

Now  let  the  reader,  with  these  suggestions  in  mind,  observe 
for  one  week  the  plant-forms  in  the  humble  herbs  that  he 
meets,  whether  these  herbs  are  strong  garden  plants  or  the 


"ijj^;,^^^ 


27.   The  plant-form  in  a  perennial  salvia. 


38 


MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 


striking  sculpturing  of  mulleins,  burdocks,  and  jimson-weed 
Figures  27  to  31  will  be  suggestive. 


28.    Funkia,  or  day-lily.     Where  lies  the  chief  interest,  —  in  the  plant-form  or 

in  the  bloom  ? 

Wild  bushes  are  nearly  always  attractive  in  form  and  habit 
when  planted  in  borders  and  groups.     They  improve 
in  appearance  under  cultivation  because  they  are 


A  large-leaved  nicotiana. 

given  a  better  chance  to  grow. 


In 


wild  nature  there  is  such  fierce  strug- 
gle for  existence  that  plants  usually 


30.  The  awkward  century  plant 
that  has  been  laboriously  car- 
ried over  winter  year  by  year 
in  the  cellar:  compare  with 
other  plants  here  shown  as  to 
its  value  as  a  lawn  subject. 


THE  GENERAL   PLAN   OR    THEORY   OF    THE   PLACE       39 

grow  to  few  or  single  stems,  and  they  are  sparse  and  scraggly 
in  form ;  but  once  given  all  the  room  they  want  and  a  good 
soil,  they  become  luxurious,  full,  and  comely.  In  most  home 
grounds  in  the  country  the  body  of  the  planting  may  be  very 
effectively  composed  of  bushes  taken  from  the  adjacent  woods 
and  fields.  The  masses  may  then  -be  enlivened  by  the  addi- 
tion here  and  there  of  cultivated  bushes,  and  the  planting  of 


^#i^,>ti 


y''iA-\ 


.'<\T' 


W^' 


31.   Making  a  picture  with  rhubarb. 


flowers  and  herbs  about  the  borders.  It  is  not  essential  that 
one  know  the  names  of  these  wild  bushes,  although  a  knowl- 
edge of  their  botanical  kinships  will  add  greatly  to  the  pleas- 
ure of  growing  them.  Neither  will  they  look  common  when 
transferred  to  the  lawn.  There  are  not  many  persons  who  know 
even  the  commonest  wild  bushes  intimately,  and  the  things 
change  so  much  in  looks  when  removed  to  rich  ground  that 
few  home-makers  recognize  them. 


40 


MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 


Odd  and  formal  trees. 

It  is  but  a  corollary  of  this  discussion  to  say  that  plants  which 
are  simply  odd  or  grotesque  or  unusual  should  be  used  with  the 
greatest  caution,  for  they  introduce  extraneous  and  jarring 
effects.  They  are  little  in  sympathy  with  a  landscape  garden. 
An  artist  would  not  care  to  paint  an  evergreen  that  is  sheared 
into  some  grotesque  shape.      It  is  only  curious,  and  shows  what 


■^-^w^^ 

^i)"^^ 


32.   A  weeping  tree  at  one  side  of  the  grounds  and  supported  by  a  background. 

a  man  with  plenty  of  time  and  long  pruning  shears  can  ac- 
complish. A  weeping  tree  (particularly  of  a  small-growing 
species)  is  usually  seen  to  best  advantage  when  it  stands  against 
a  group  or  mass  of  foliage  (Fig.  32),  as  a  promontory,  adding 
zest  and  spirit  to  the  border;  it  then  has  relation  with  the  place. 
This  leads  me  to  speak  of  the  planting  of  the  Lombardy 
poplar,  which  may  be  taken  as  a  type  of  the  formal  tree,  and  as  an 
illustration  of  what  I  mean  to  express.  Its  chief  merits  to  the 
average  planter  are  the  quickness  of  its  growth  and  the  readiness 
with  which  it  multiplies  by  sprouts.  But  in  the  North  it  is 
likely  to  be  a  short-lived  tree,  it  suffers  from  storms,  and  it  has 


THE   GENERAL  PLAN   OR    THEORY  OF   THE  PLACE      41 

few  really  useful  qualities.  It  may  be  used  to  some  advantage  in 
windbreaks  for  peach  orchards  and  other  short-lived  plantations; 
but  after  a  few  years  a  screen  of  Lombardies  begins  to  fail,  and 
the  habit  of  suckering  from  the  root  adds  to  its  undesirable  fea- 
tures. For  shade  it  has  little  merit,  and  for  timber  none. 
Persons  like  it  because  it  is  striking,  and  this,  in  an  artistic 
sense,  is  its  gravest  fault.  It  is  unlike  anything  else  in  our  land- 
scape, and  does  not  fit  into  our  scenery  well.  A  row  of  Lom- 
bardies along  a  roadside  is  like  a  row  of  exclamation  points! 

But  the  Lombardy  can  often  be  used  to  good  effect  as  one 
factor  in  a  group  of  trees,  where  its  spire-like  shape,  towering 
above  the  surrounding  foliage,  may  lend  a  spirited  charm  to 
the  landscape.  It  combines  well  in  such  groups  if  it  stands  in 
visual  nearness  to  chimneys  or  other  tall  formal  objects.  Then 
it  gives  a  sort  of  architectural  finish  and  spirit  to  a  group;  but 
the  effect  is  generally  lessened,  if  not  altogether  spoiled,  in  small 
places,  if  more  than  one  Lombardy  is  in  view.  One  or  two  speci- 
mens may  often  be  used  to  give  vigor  to  heavy  plantations 
about  low  buildings,  and  the  effect  is  generally  best  if  they  are 
seen  beyond  or  at  the  rear  of  the  building.  Note  the  use  that 
the  artist  has  made  of  them  in  the  backgrounds  in  Figs.  12,  13, 
and  43. 

Poplars  and  the  like. 

Another  defect  in  common  ornamental  planting,  which  is 
well  illustrated  in  the  use  of  poplars,  is  the  desire  for  plants 
merely  because  they  grow  rapidly.  A  very  rapid-growing 
tree  nearly  always  produces  cheap  effects.  This  is  well  illus- 
trated in  the  common  planting  of  willows  and  poplars  about 
summer  places  or  lake  shores.  Their  effect  is  almost  wholly 
one  of  thinness  and  temporariness.  There  is  little  that  suggests 
strength  or  durability  in  willows  and  poplars,  and  for  this  reason 
they  should  usually  be  employed  as  minor  or  secondary  features 
in  ornamental  or  home  grounds.     When  quick  results  are  de- 


42 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


sired,  nothing  is  better  to  plant  than  these  trees;  but  better  trees, 
as  maples,  oaks,  or  elms,  should  be  planted  with  them,  and  the 
poplars  and  willows  should  be  removed  as  rapidly  as  the  other 
species  begin  to  afford  protection.  When  the  plantation  finally 
assumes  its  permanent  characters,   a  few  of  the  remaining 


33.   A  spring  expression  worth  securing.     Catkins  of  the  small  poplar. 

poplars  and  willows,  judiciously  left,  may  afford  very  excel- 
lent effects;  but  no  one  who  has  an  artist's  feeling  would  be 
content  to  construct  the  framework  of  his  place  of  these  rapid- 
growing  and  soft- wooded  trees. 

I  have  said  that  the  legitimate  use  of  poplars  in  ornamental 
grounds  is  in  the  production  of  minor  or  secondary  effects. 
As  a  rule,  they  are  less  adapted  to  isolated  planting  as  sped- 


THE   GENERAL   PLAN   OR    THEORY  OF   THE  PLACE      43 

men  trees  than  to  using  in  composition,  —  that  is,  as  parts  of 
general  groups  of  trees,  where  their  characters  serve  to  break 
the  monotony  of  heavier  forms  and  heavier  fohage.  The 
poplars  are  gay  trees,  as  a  rule,  especially  those,  like  the  aspens, 
that  have  a  trembling  foliage.  Their  leaves  are  bright  and 
the  tree-tops  are  thin.  The  common  aspen  or  ''popple," 
Populus  tremuloides,  of  our  woods,  is  a  meritorious  little  tree 
for  certain  effects.  Its 
dangling  catkins  (Fig. 
33),  light,  dancing  fo- 
liage, and  silver-gray 
limbs,  are  always 
cheering,  and  its  au- 
tumn color  is  one  of  the 
purest  golden-yellows 
of  our  landscape.  It 
is  good  to  see  a  tree 
of  it  standing  out  in 
front  of  a  group  of 
maples  or  evergreens. 

Plant-forms. 

Before  one  attains 
to  great  sensitiveness 
in  the  appreciation  of  gardens,  he  learns  to  distinguish  plants  by 
their  forms.  This  is  particularly  true  for  trees  and  shrubs.  Each 
species  has  its  own  ''expression,"  which  is  determined  by  the 
size  that  is  natural  to  it,  mode  of  branching,  form  of  top,  twig 
characters,  bark  characters,  foliage  characters,  and  to  some  extent 
its  flower  and  fruit  characters.  It  is  a  useful  practice  for  one 
to  train  his  eye  by  learning  the  difference  in  expression  of  the 
trees  of  different  varieties  of  cherries  or  pears  or  apples  or  other 
fruits,  if  he  has  access  to  a  plantation  of  them.  The  differences 
in  cherries  and  pears  are  very  marked  (Figs.  34-36).     He  may 


34.   Plant-form  in  cherries.  — Reine  Hortense. 


44 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


also  contrast  and  compare  carefully  the  kinds  of  any  tree  or 
shrub  of  which  there  are  two  or  three  species  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, learning  to  dis- 
tinguish them  without 
close  examination;  as 
the  sugar  maple,  red 
maple,  soft  maple,  and 
Norway  maple  (if  it  is 
planted);  the  white  or 
American  elm,  the  cork 
elm,  the  slippery  elm, 
the  planted  European 


35.  Morello  cherry. 

elms;  the  aspen,  large-toothed  ^ 
poplar,  Cottonwood,  balm  of  gil- 
ead,  Carolina  poplar,  Lombardy 
poplar;  the  main  species  of  oaks; 
the  hickories;  and  the  hke. 

It  will  not  be  long  before  the 
observer  learns  that  many  of 
the  tree  and  shrub  characters 
are  most  marked  in  winter  ;  and 
he  will  begin  unconsciously  to 
add  the  winter  to  his  year. 


36.   May  Duke  cherry. 


Various  specific  examples. 

The  foregoing  remarks  will  mean  more  if  the  reader  is  shown 
some  concrete  examples.     I  have  chosen  a  few  cases,  not  because 


THE   GENERAL   PLAN   OR   THEORY  OF   THE  PLACE       45 

they  are  the  best,  or  even  because  they  are  always  good  enough 
for  models,  but  because  they  lie  in  my  way  and  illustrate  what 
I  desire  to  teach. 

A  front  yard  example. 

We  will  first  look  at  a  very  ordinary  front  yard.     It  con- 
tained no  plants,  except  a  pear  tree  standing  near  the  corner 


s^■, 


s^m&i^^k 


Ji^. 


37.   The  planting  in  a  simple  front  yard. 

of  the  house.  Four  years  later  sees  the  yard  as  shown  in  Fig. 
37.  An  exochorda  is  the  large  bush  in  the  very  foreground, 
and  the  porch  foundation  is  screened  and  a  border  is  thereby 
given  to  the  lawn.  The  length  of  this  planting  from  end  to 
end  is  about  fourteen  feet,  with  a  projection  towards  the  front 
on  the  left  of  ten  feet.  In  the  bay  at  the  base  of  this  projection 
the  planting  is  only  two  feet  wide  or  deep,  and  from  here  it 
gradually  swings  out  to  the  steps,  eight  feet  wide.  The  promi- 
nent large-leaved  plant  near  the  steps  is  a  bramble,  Rubus 
odoratus,  very  common  in  the  neighborhood,  and  it  is  a  choice 


46 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


plant  for  decorative  planting,  when  it  is  kept  under  control. 
The  plants  in  this  border  in  front  of  the  porch  are  all  from  the 
wild,  and  comprise  a  prickly  ash,  several  plants  of  two  wild 
osiers  or  dogwoods,  a  spice  bush,  rose,  wild  sunflowers  and 
asters  and  golden-rods.  The  promontory  at  the  left  is  a  more 
ambitious  but  less  effective  mass.  It  contains  an  exochorda, 
a  reed,  variegated  elder,  sacaline,  variegated  dogwood,  tansy, 
and  a  young  tree  of  wild  crab.     At  the  rear  of  the  plantation, 


38.   Plan  of  the  planting  shown  in  Fig.  37. 


next  the  house,  one  sees  the  pear  tree.  The  best  single  part  of 
the  planting  is  the  reed  (Arundo  Donax)  overtopping  the 
exochorda.  The  photograph  was  taken  early  in  summer,  before 
the  reed  had  become  conspicuous. 

A  ground  plan  of  this  planting  is  shown  in  Fig.  38.  At  A  is 
the  walk  and  B  the  steps.  An  opening  at  D  serves  as  a  passage. 
The  main  planting,  in  front  of  the  porch,  fourteen  feet  long, 
received  twelve  plants,  some  of  which  have  now  spread  into 
large  clumps.  At  1  is  a  large  bush  of  osier,  Cornus  Baileyi, 
one  of  the  best  red-stemmed  bushes.  At  2  is  a  mass  of  Ruhus 
odoratus;    at  5  asters  and  golden-rods;  at  3  a  clump  of  wild 


THE   GENERAL   PLAN   OR    THEORY   OF    THE  PLACE       47 


sunflowers.  The  projecting  planting  on  the  left  comprises 
about  ten  plants,  of  which  4  is  exochorda,  6  is  arundo  or  reed, 
at  the  back  of  which  is  a  large  clump  of  sacaline,  and  7  is  a 
variegated-leaved  elder. 

Another  example. 

A  back  yard  is  shown  in  Fig.  39.  The  owner  wanted  a 
tennis  court,  and  the  yard  is  so  small  as  not  to  allow  of  wide 
planting  at  the  borders. 
However,  something  could 
be  done.  On  the  left  is 
a  weedland  border,  which 
formed  the  basis  of  the  dis- 
cussion of  wild  plants  on 
page  35.  In  the  first  place, 
a  good  lawn  was  made.  In 
the  second  place,  no  walks 
or  drives  were  laid  in  the 
area.  The  drive  for  grocers' 
wagons  and  coal  is  seen  in 
the  rear,  ninety  feet  from 
the  house.  From  I  to  J 
is  the  weedland,  separating 
the  area  from  the  neighbor's 
premises.  Near  I  is  a  clump 
of  roses.  At  K  is  a  large 
bunch  of  golden-rods.  H  marks  a  clump  of  yucca.  G  is  a 
cabin,  covered  with  vines  on  the  front.  From  G  to  F  is  an 
irregular  border,  about  six  feet  wide,  containing  barberries, 
forsythias,  wild  elder,  and  other  bushes.  D  E  is  a  screen  of 
Russian  mulberry,  setting  off  the  clothes  yard  from  the  front 
lawn.  Near  the  back  porch,  at  the  end  of  the  screen,  is  an 
arbor  covered  with  wild  grapes,  making  a  play-house  for  the 
children.     A  clump  of  lilacs  stands  at  A.     At  B  is  a  vine- 


39.   Diagram  of  a  back--v  arc!  planting 
50  X  90  feet. 


48 


MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 


covered  screen,  serving  as  a  hammock  support.  The  lawn  made 
and  the  planting  done,  it  was  next  necessary  to  lay  the  walks. 
These  are  wholly  informal  affairs,  made  by  sinking  a  plank  ten 
inches  wide  into  the  ground  to  a  level  with  the  sod.  The  bor- 
der plantings  of  this  yard  are  too  straight  and  regular  for  the 
most  artistic  results,  but  such  was  necessary  in  order  not  to 


—7*  Irf?*;^^^^^  "^ 


Hfi- 


40.   The  beginning  of  a  landscape  garden. 

encroach  upon  the  central  space.  Yet  the  reader  will  no  doubt 
agree  that  this  yard  is  much  better  than  it  could  be  made  by 
any  system  of  scattered  and  spotted  planting.  Let  him  im- 
agine how  a  glowing  carpet-bed  would  look  set  down  in  the 
center  of  this  lawn! 


A  third  example. 

The  making  of  a  landscape  picture  is  well  illustrated  in 
Figs.  40,  41.  The  former  shows  a  small  clay  field  (seventy- 
five  feet  wide,  and  three  hundred  feet  deep),  with  a  barn  at 


THE   GENERAL   PLAN   OR    THEORY   OF   THE  PLACE      40 

the  rear.  In  front  of  the  barn  is  a  screen  of  willows.  The 
observer  is  looking  from  the  dwelling-house.  The  area  has  been 
plowed  and  seeded  for  a  lawn.  The  operator  has  then  marked 
out  a  devious  line  upon  either  border  with  a  hoe  handle,  and  all 
the  space  l)etwecn  these  borders  has  been  gone  over  with  a 
garden  roller  to  mark  the  area  of  the  desired  greensward. 


41.   The  result  in  five  years. 

The  borders  are  now  planted  with  a  variety  of  small  trees, 
bushes,  and  herbs.  Five  years  later  the  view  shown  in  Fig. 
41  was  taken. 


A  small  back  yard. 

A  back  yard  is  shown  in  Fig.  42.  It  is  approximately  sixty 
feet  square.  At  present  it  contains  a  drive,  which  is  unneces- 
sary, expensive  to  keep  in  repair,  and  destructive  of  any  attempt 
to  make  a  picture  of  the  area.  The  place  could  be  improved 
by  planting  it  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  Fig.  43. 


50 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


42,   A  meaningless  back-j^ard  planting,  and  an  unnecessary  drive. 


43.   Suggestions  for  improving  Fig.  42. 

A  city  lot. 

A  plan  of  a  city  lot  is  given  in  Fig.  44.  The  area  is  fifty 
by  one  hundred,  and  the  house  occupies  the  greater  part  of  the 
width.  It  is  level,  but  the  surrounding  land  is  higher,  resulting 
in  a  sharp  terrace,  three  or  four  feet  high,  on  the  rear,  E  D. 
This  terrace  vanishes  at  C  on  the  right,  but  extends  nearly  the 
whole  length  of  the  other  side,  gradually  diminishing  as  it 
approaches  A.  There  is  a  terrace  two  feet  high  extending  from 
A  to  B,  along  the  front.  Beyond  the  line  E  D  is  the  rear  of  an 
establishment  which  it  is  desired  to  hide.     Since  the  terraces 


THE   GENERAL   PLAN   OR   THEORY  OF   THE  PLACE      51 


set  definite  borders  to  this  little  place,  it  is  desirable  to  plant 
the  boundaries  rather  heavily.  If  the  adjoining  lawns  were 
on  the  same  level,  or  if  the  neighbors  .e 
would  allow  one  area  to  be  merged  into 
the  other  by  pleasant  slopes,  the  three 
yards  might  be  made  into  one  pic- 
ture; but  the  place  must  remain  iso- 
lated. 

There  are  three  problems  of  struc- 
tural planting  in  the  place :  to  provide 
a  cover  or  screen  at  the  rear;  to  pro- 
vide lower  border  masses  on  the  side 
terraces;  to  plant  next  the  founda- 
tions of  the  house.  Aside  from  these 
problems,  the  grower  is  entitled  to 
have  a  certain  number  of  specie  o  en 
plants,  if  he  has  particular  liking  for 
given  types,  but  these  specimens  must 
be  planted  in  some  relation  to  the 
structural  masses,  and  not  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  lawn. 

The  owner  desired  a  mixed  planting,  for  variety.  The  follow- 
ing shrubs  were  actually  selected  and  planted.  The  place  is 
in  central  New  York:  — 


1    te^ 

c 

( 

u= 

^/ 

—       —      - 

-     0 

44.  Present  outline  of  a  city 
back  yard,  desired  to  be 
planted. 


Shrubs  for  the  tall  background 

2  Barberry,  Berberis  vulgaris  and  var.  purpurea. 

1  Cornus  Mas. 

2  Talldeutzias. 

3  Lilacs. 

2  Mock  oranges,  Philadelphus  grandiflorus  and  P.  coronarius. 

2  Variegated  elders. 

2  Eleagnus,  Elceagnus  hortensis  and  E.  longipes, 

1  Exochorda. 

2  Hibiscuses. 


52 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


1  Privet. 

3  Viburnums. 

1  Snowball. 

1  Tartarian  honeysuckle. 

1  Silver  Bell,  Halesia  tetraptera. 

These  were  planted  on  the  sloping  bank  of  the  terrace,  from 
E  to  D.  The  terrace  has  an  incline,  or  width,  of  about  three 
feet.  Figure  45  shows  this  terrace  after  the  planting  was  com- 
pleted, looking  from  the  point  C. 


45.   The  planting  of  the  terrace  in  Fig.  44. 


Shrubs  of  7nedium  size,  suitable  for  side  plantings  and  groups  in 
the  foregoing  example 

3  Barberries,  Berberis  Thunbergii. 

3  Osier  dogwoods,  variegated. 

2  Japanese  quinces,  Cydonia  Japonica  and  C.  Maulei, 

4  Tall  deutzias. 

1  Variegated  elder. 

7  Weigelas,  assorted  colors. 

1  Rhodotypos. 

9  Spireas  of  medium  growth,  assorted. 

1  Rubus  odoratus. 

1  Lonicera  fragrantissima. 

Most  of  these  shrubs  were  planted  in  a  border  two  feet  wide, 
extending  from  B  to  C  D,  the  planting  beginning  about  ten 
feet  back  from  the  street.  Some  of  them  were  placed  on  the 
terrace  at  the  left,  extending  from  E  one-fourth  of  the  distance 


THE    GENERAL   PLAN    OR    THEORY   OF    THE  PLACE       53 

to  A.  The  plants  were  set  about  two  feet  apart.  A  strong 
clump  was  placed  at  N  to  screen  the  back  yard.  In  this  back 
yard  a  few  small  fruit  trees  and  a  strawberry  bed  were  planted. 

Low  informal  shrubs  for  front  of  porch  and  hanking  against  house 

3  Deutzia  gracilis. 

6  Kerrias,  green  and  variegated. 

3  Daphne  Mezereum. 

3  Lonicera  Halliana. 

3  Rubus  phoenicolasius. 

3  Symphoricarpus  vulgaris. 

4  Mahonias. 

1  Ribes  aureum. 

1  Ribes  sanguineum. 

1  Rubus  crataegifolius. 

1  Rubus  fruticosus  var.  laciniatus. 

These  bushes  were  planted  against  the  front  of  the  house 
(a  porch  on  a  high  foundation  extends  to  the  right  from  O), 
from  the  walk  around  to  P,  and  a  few  of  them  were  placed  at 
the  rear  of  the  house. 

Specimen  shrubs  for  mere  ornament,  for  this  place 
Azalea. 

Rhododendron. 
Rose. 

2  Hydrangeas. 
1  Snowball. 

1  each  Forsythia  suspensa  and  F.  viridissima. 

2  Flowering  almonds. 

These  were  planted  in  conspicuous  places  here  and  there 
against  the  other  masses. 

Here  are  one  hundred  excellent  and  interesting  bushes  planted 
in  a  yard  only  fifty  feet  wide  and  one  hundred  feet  deep,  and 
yet  the  place  has  as  much  room  in  it  as  it  had  before.     There 


54 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


is  abundant  opportunity  along  the  borders  for  dropping  in 
cannas,  dahlias,  hollyhocks,  asters,  geraniums,  coleuses,  and 
other  brilliant  plants.  The  bushes  will  soon  begin  to  crowd, 
to  be  sure,  but  a  mass  is  wanted,  and  the  narrowness  of  the 


^^.r^!^^ 


Said  to  have  been  planted. 


plantations  will  allow  each  bush  to  develop  itself  laterally  to 
perfection.  If  the  borders  become  too  thick,  however,  it  is  an 
easy  matter  to  remove  some  of  the  bushes ;  but  they  probably  will 
not.  Picture  the  color  and  variety  and  life  in  that  little  yard. 
And  if  a  pigweed  now  and  then  gets  a  start  in  the  border, 
it  would  do  no  harm  to  let  it  alone :  it  belongs  there !  Then 
picture  the  same  area  filled  with  disconnected,  spotty,  dyspeptic, 
and  unspirited  flower-beds  and  rose  bushes! 


An  area  well  filled.    Compare  Fig.  46. 


Various  examples. 

Strong  and  bare  foundations  should  be  relieved  by  heavy 
planting.  Fill  the  corners  with  snow-drifts  of  foliage.  Plant 
with  a  free  hand,  as  if  you  meant  it  (compare  Figs.  46  and  47). 


THE   GENERAL  PLAN   OR   THEORY  OF   THE  PLACE      55 


The  corner  by  the  steps  is  a  perennial  source  of  bad  temper. 
The  lawn-mower  will  not  touch  it,  and  the  grass  has  to  be  cut 
with  a  butcher-knife.  If  nothing  else  comes  to  hand,  let  a 
burdock  grow  in  it  (Fig.  1). 


48.   The  screening  of  the  tennis-screen. 

The  tennis-screen  may  be  relieved  by  a  background  (Fig. 
48),  and  a  clump  of  ribbon-grass  or  something  else  is  out 
of  the  way  against  a  post 
(Fig.  49). 

Excellent  mass  effects  may 
be  secured  by  cutting  well- 
established  plants  of  sumac, 
ailanthus,  basswood,  and 
other  strong-growing  things, 
to  the  ground  each  year,  for 
the  purpose  of  securing  the 
stout  shoots.  Figure  50  will 
give  the  hint. 

But    if    one  has    no   area 


49.   At  the  bottom  of  the  clothes-post. 


which  he  can  make  into  a  lawn  and  upon  which  he  can  plant 
such  verdurous  masses,  what  then  may  he  do  ?     Even  then 


56  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

there  may  be  opportunity  for  a  little  neat  and  artistic  plant- 
ing. Even  if  one  lives  in  a  rented  house,  he  may  bring  in  a 
bush  or  an  herb  from  the  woods,  and  paint  a  picture  with  it. 
Plant  it  in  the  corner  by  the  steps,  in  front  of  the  porch,  at 
the  corner  of  the  house,  —  almost  anywhere  except  in  the 
center  of  the  lawn.  Make  the  ground  rich,  secure  a  strong 
root,  and  plant  it  with  care;  then  wait.  The  little  clump  will 
not  only  have  a  beauty  and  interest  of  its  own,  but  it  may 
add  immensely  to  the  furniture  of  the  yard. 


-*'™«iiC5r'Z  JWa.'  ,  "ii£;ii»;ii;,i]»/ii(  *- 

50.   Young  shoots  of  ailanthus  (and  sunflowers  for  variety). 

About  these  clumps  one  may  plant  bulbs  of  glowing  tulips 
or  dainty  snowdrops  and  hlies-of-the- valley;  and  these  may  be 
followed  with  pansies  and  phlox  and  other  simple  folk.  Very 
soon  one  finds  himself  deeply  interested  in  these  random 
and  detached  pictures,  and  almost  before  he  is  aware  he  finds 
that  he  has  rounded  off  the  corners  of  the  house,  made  snug  little 
arbors  of  wild  grapes  and  clematis,  covered  the  rear  fence  and 
the  outhouse  with  actinidia  and  bitter-sweet,  and  has  thrown 
in  dashes  of  color  with  hollyhocks,  cannas,  and  lihes,  and  has 
tied  the  foundations  of  the  buildings  to  the  greensward  by  low 


THE   GENERAL   PLAN   OR    THEORY  OF   THE  PLACE      57 


strands  of  vines  or  deft  bits  of  planting.  He  soon  comes  to 
feel  that  flowers  are  most  expressive  of  the  best  emotions 
when  they  are  dain- 
tily dropped  in  here 
and  there  against  a 
background  of  foli- 
age, or  else  made  a 
side -piece  in  the 
place.  There  is  no 
limit  to  the  adapta- 
tions; Figs.  51  to 
58  suggest  some  of 
the  backyard  possi- 
bilities. 


51.    A  back-yard  cabin. 


Presently  he  rebels  at  the  bold,  harsh,  and  impudent  de- 
signs of  some  of  the  gardeners, 
and  grows  into  a  resourceful 
love  of  plant  forms  and  verdure. 
He  may  still  like  the  weeping 
and  cut-leaved  and  party-colored 
trees  of  the  horticulturist,  but 
he  sees  that  their  best  effects 
are  to  be  had  when  they  are 
planted  sparingly,  as  borders  or 
promontories  of  the  structural 
masses. 

The  best  planting,  as  the  best 
painting  and  the  best  music,  is 
possible  only  with  the  best  and 
tenderest  feeling  and  the  closest 
living  with  nature.  One's  place 
grows  to  be  a  reflection  of  him- 
self, changing  as  he  changes,  and  expressing  his  life  and  sym- 
pathies to  the  last. 


52.  A  garden  path  with  hedgerows, 
trellis,  and  bench,  in  formal  treat- 
ment. 


58 


MANUAL   OF  GARDENING 


Review 

We  have  now  discussed  some  of  the  principles  and  apphca- 
tions  of  landscape  architecture  or  landscape  gardening,  par- 
ticularly in  reference  to 
the  planting.  The  ob- 
ject of  landscape  garden- 
ing is  to  make  a  picture. 
All  the  grading,  seeding, 
planting,  are  incidental 
and  supplemental  to  this 
one  central  idea.  The 
greensward  is  the  canvas, 
the  house  or  some  other 
prominent  point  is  the 


53.   An  enclosure  for  lawn  games. 


central  figure,  the  planting  completes 
the  composition  and  adds  the  color. 

The  second  conception  is  the  prin- 
ciple that  the  picture  should  have  a 
landscape  effect.  That  is,  it  should  be 
nature-like.  Carpet-beds  are  masses 
of  color,  not  pictures.  They  are  the 
little  garnishings  and  reliefs  that  are 
to  be  used  very  cautiously,  as  little 
eccentricities  and  conventionalisms  in 
a  building  should  never  be  more  than 
very  minor  features. 

Every  other  concept  in  landscape 
gardening  is  subordinate  to  these  two. 
Some  of  the  most  important  of  these 
secondary  yet  underlying  considera- 
tions are  as  follows :  — 

The  place  is  to  be  conceived  of  as  a  unit.     If  a  building  is 
not  pleasing,  ask  an  architect  to  improve  it.     The  real  architect 


54.   Sunlight  and  shadow. 


THE   GENERAL   PLAN   OR    THEORY  OF   THE  PLACE      59 


will  study  the  building  as  a  whole,  grasp  its  design  and  meaning, 
and  suggest  improvements  that  will  add  to  the  forcefulness 
of  the  entire  structure.  A  dabbler 
would  add  a  chimney  here,  a  win- 
dow there,  and  apply  various  daubs 
of  paint  to  the  building.  Each  of 
these  features  might  be  good  in 
itself.  The  paints  might  be  the 
best  of  ochre,  ultramarine,  or  paris 
green,  but  they  might  have  no  rela- 
tion to  the  building  as  a  whole  and 
would  be  only  ludicrous.  These  two 
examples  illustrate  the  chfference 
between  landscape  gardening  and 

55.  An  upland  garden,  with 
grass-grown  steps,  sundial, 
and  edge  of  foxgloves. 

the  scattering  over  the  place 
of  mere  ornamental  features. 
There  should  be  one  cen- 
tral and  emphatic  point  in 
the  picture.  A  picture  of  a 
battle  draws  its  interest  from 
the  action  of  a  central  fig- 
ure or  group.  The  moment 
the  incidental  and  lateral  fig- 
ures are  made  as  prominent 
as  the  central  figures,  the 
picture  loses  emphasis,  life, 
56.  A  garden  corner.  ^^j^^j  meaning.     The  borders 

of  a  place  are  of  less  importance  than  its  center.     Therefore 

Keep  the  center  of  the  place  open; 

Frame  and  mass  the  sides;  Avoid  scattered  effects. 


60 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


57.  An  old-fashioned  doorway. 

effective  than  twenty  flowers 
in  the  center  of  the  lawn. 

More  depends  on  the  posi- 
tions that  plants  occupy  with 
reference  to  each  other  and  to 
the  structural  design  of  the  place, 
than  on  the  intrinsic  merits  of 
the  plants  themselves. 

Landscape  gardening,  then, 
is  the  embellishment  of 
grounds  in  such  a  way  that 
they  will  have  a  nature-like  or 
landscape  effect.  The  flowers 
and  accessories  may  heighten 
and  accelerate  the  effect,  but 
they  should  not  contradict  it. 


In  a  landscape  picture  flow- 
ers are  incidents.  They  add 
emphasis,  supply  color,  give 
variety  and  finish;  they  are 
the  ornaments,  but  the  lawn 
and  the  mass-plantings  make 
the  framework.  One  flower 
in  the  border,  and  made  an 
incident  of  the  picture,  is  more 


58.   An  informally  treated  stream. 


CHAPTER  III 

EXECUTION   OF   SOME   OF  THE   LANDSCAPE   FEATURES 

The  general  lay-out  of  a  small  home  property  having  now 
been  considered,  we  may  discuss  the  practical  operations  of 
executing  the  plan.  It  is  not  intended  in  this  chapter  to  discuss 
the  general  question  of  how  to  handle  the  soil :  that  discussion 
comes  in  Chapter  IV;  nor  in  detail  how  to  handle  plants:  that 
occurs  in  Chapters  V  to  X;  but  the  subjects  of  grading,  laying 
out  of  walks  and  drives,  executing  the  border  plantings,  and  the 
making  of  lawns,  may  be  briefly  considered. 

Of  course  the  instructions  given  in  a  book,  however  complete, 
are  very  inadequate  and  unsatisfactory  as  compared  with  the 
advice  of  a  good  experienced  person.  It  is  not  always  possible 
to  find  such  a  person,  however ;  and  it  is  no  little  satisfaction  to 
the  homemaker  if  he  can  feel  that  he  can  handle  the  work  him- 
self, even  at  the  expense  of  some  mistakes. 

The  grading. 

The  first  consideration  is  to  grade  the  land.  Grading  is 
very  expensive,  especially  if  performed  at  a  season  when  the 
soil  is  heavy  with  water.  Every  effort  should  be  made,  there- 
fore, to  reduce  the  grading  to  a  minimum  and  still  secure  a 
pleasing  contour.  A  good  time  to  grade,  if  one  has  the  time, 
is  in  the  fall  before  the  heavy  rains  come,  and  then  allow  the 
surface  to  settle  until  spring,  when  the  finish  may  be  made. 
All  filling  will  settle  in  time  unless  thoroughly  tamped  as  it 
proceeds. 

The  smaller  the  area  the  more  pains  must  be  taken  with  the 
grading;  but  in  any  plat  that  is  one  hundred  feet  or  more  square, 

61 


62  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

very  considerable  undulations  may  be  left  in  the  surface  with 
excellent  effect.  In  lawns  of  this  size,  or  even  half  this  size, 
it  is  rarely  advisable  to  have  them  perfectly  flat  and  level. 
They  should  slope  gradually  away  from  the  house;  and  when 
the  lawn  is  seventy-five  feet  or  more  in  width,  it  may  be  slightly 
crowning  with  good  effect.  A  lawn  should  seldom  be  hollow, 
—  that  is,  lower  in  the  center  than  at  the  borders,  —  and  broad 
lawns  that  are  perfectly  flat  and  level  often  appear  to  be  hollow. 
A  slope  of  one  foot  in  twenty  or  thirty  is  none  too  much  for  a 
pleasant  grade  in  lawns  of  some  extent. 

In  small  places,  fche  grading  may  be  done  by  the  eye,  unless 
there  are  very  particular  conditions  to  meet.  In  large  or 
difficult  areas,  it  is  well  to  have  the  place  contoured  by  instru- 
ments. This  is  particularly  desirable  if  the  grading  is  to  be 
done  on  contract.  A  basal  or  datum  line  is  established,  above 
or  below  which  all  surfaces  are  to  be  shaped  at  measured 
distances.  Even  in  small  yards,  such  a  datum  line  is  desirable 
for  the  best  kind  of  work. 

The  terrace. 

In  places  in  which  the  natural  slope  is  very  perceptible,  there 
is  a  tendency  to  terrace  the  lawn  for  the  purpose  of  making  the 
various  parts  or  sections  of  it  more  or  less  level  and  plane. 
In  nearly  all  cases,  however,  a  terrace  in  a  main  lawn  is  objec- 
tionable. It  cuts  the  lawn  into  two  or  more  portions,  and 
thereby  makes  it  look  smaller  and  spoils  the  effect  of  the  picture. 
A  terrace  always  obtrudes  a  hard  and  rigid  line,  and  fastens 
the  attention  upon  itself  rather  than  upon  the  landscape.  Ter- 
races are  also  expensive  to  make  and  to  keep  in  order;  and  a 
shabby  terrace  is  always  distracting. 

When  formal  effects  are  desired,  their  success  depends,  how- 
ever, very  largely  on  the  rigidity  of  the  lines  and  the  care  with 
which  they  are  maintained.  If  a  terrace  is  necessary,  it  should 
be  in  the  form  of  a  retaining  wall  next  the  street,  or  else  it 


EXECUTION  OF  SOME  OF  THE  LANDSCAPE  FEATURES     63 

should  lie  next  the  building,  giving  as  broad  and  continuous  a 
lawn  as  possible.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  a 
terrace  next  a  building  should  not  be  a  part  of  the  landscape, 
but  a  part  of  the  architecture;  that  is,  it  should  serve  as  a 
base  to  the  building.  It  will  at  once  be  seen,  therefore,  that 
terraces  are  most  in  place  against  those  buildings  that  have 
strong  horizontal  Hues,  and  they  are  little  suitable  against 
buildings  with  very  broken  Hues  and  mixed  or  gothic  features. 
In  order  to  join  the  terrace  to  the  building,  it  is  usually  advis- 
able to  place  some  architectural  feature  upon  its  crown,  as  a 
balustrade,  and  to  ascend  it  by  means  of  architectural  steps. 
The  terrace  elevation,  therefore,  becomes  a  part  of  the  base  of 
the  building,  and  the  top  of  it  is  an  esplanade. 


59.  A  terrace  in  the  distance;  in  the  foreground  an  ideal  "  running  out "  of 

the  bank. 

A  simple  and  gradually  sloping  bank  can  nearly  always 
be  made  to  take  the  place  of  a  terrace.  For  example,  let  the 
operator  make  a  terrace,  with  sharp  angles  above  and  below, 
in  the  fall  of  the  year;  in  the  spring,  he  will  find  (if  he  has  not 
sodded  it  heavily)  that  nature  has  taken  the  matter  in  hand 
and  the  upper  angle  of  the  terrace  has  been  washed  away  and 
deposited  in  the  lower  angle,  and  the  result  is  the  beginning  of 
a  good  series  of  curves.  Figure  59  shows  an  ideal  slope,  with  its 
double  curve,  comprising  a  convex  curve  on  the  top  of  the  bank, 


64 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


and  a  concave  curve  at  the  lower  part.  This  is  a  slope  that 
would  ordinarily  be  terraced,  but  in  its  present  condition  it  is 
a  part  of  the  landscape  picture.  It  may  be  mown  as  readily 
as  any  other  part  of  the  lawn,  and  it  takes  care  of  itself. 


60.   Treatment  of  a  sloping  lawn. 

The  diagrams  in  Fig.  60  indicate  poor  and  good  treatment 
of  a  lawn.  The  terraces  are  not  needed  in  this  case;  or  if 
they  are,  they  should  never  be  made  as  at  1.  The  same  dip 
could  be  taken  up  in  a  single  curved  bank,  as  at  3,  but  the 
better  way,  in  general,  is  to  give  the  treatment  shown  in  2. 


61.   Treatment  of  a  very  steep  bank. 

Figure  61  shows  how  a  very  high  terrace,  4,  can  be  supplaced 
by  a  sloping  bank  5.  Figure  62  shows  a  terrace  that  falls  away 
too  suddenly  from  the  house. 

The  hounding  lines. 

In  grading  to  the  borders  of  the  place,  it  is  not  always  neces- 
sary, nor  even  desirable,  that  a  continuous  contour  should  be 
maintained,  especially  if  the  border  is  higher  or  lower  than  the 


EXECUTION  OF  SOME  OF  THE  LANDSCAPE  FEATURES      65 


II      lawn.     A  somewhat  irrregular  line  of  grade  will  appear 
^     to  be  most  natural,  and  lend  itself  best  to  effective 
planting.     This  is  specially  true  in  the  grade  to  water- 
courses, which,  as  a  rule,  should  be  more  or  less  devious 
or  winding;   and  the  adjacent  land  should,  therefore, 
^~^W\  present  various  heights  and  contours.     It  is  not 

-^^..^.^^  always  necessary,  however,  to  make  distinct 

^""^"■~^^^,^^^  banks  along  water-courses,  particu- 

^^"""^-v^^^  larly  if  the  place  is  small  and 

62.   A  terrace  or  slope  ^^^^^  ^^^  n2XMV2^.  lay  of  the 

that  tails  too  suddenly  awav  ^'^^^.^  , 

from  a  building.    There  should  be  ^^"^..^^  land  is  more  Or 

a    level    place    or    esplanade   next   the  ^"^^^-....^^^^  Jggg   plane   Or 

building,  if  possible.  "  ^""-""^^^.^    _ '  . 

flat.  A  very 
slight  depression,  as  shown  in  Fig.  63,  may  answer  all  the  pur- 
poses of  a  water  grade  in  such  places.  • 

If  it  is  desirable  that  the  lawn  be  as  large  and  spacious  as 
possible,  then  the  boundary  of  it  should  be  removed.     Take 


63.   Shaping  the  land  down  to  a  water-course. 

away  the   fences,    curbing,  and  other  right  lines.     In  rural 
places,  a  sunken  fence  may  sometimes  be  placed  athwart  the 


66 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


lawn  at  its  farther  edge  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  cattle  off  the 
place,  and  thereby  bring  in  the  adjacent  landscape.  Figure  64 
suggests  how  this  may  be  done.  The  depression  near  the  foot  of 
the  lawn,  which  is  really  a  ditch  and  scarcely  visible  from  the 


upper  part  of  the  place  because  of  the  slight  elevation  on  its 
inner  rim,  answers  all  the  purposes  of  a  fence. 

Nearly  all  trees  are  injured  if  the  dirt  is  filled  about  the 
base  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  or  more.  The  natural  base  of  the 
plant  should  be  exposed  so  far  as  possible,  not  only  for  protec- 
tion of  the  tree,  but  because  the  base  of  a  tree  trunk  is  one  of 
its  most  distinctive  features.     Oaks,  maples,  and  in  fact  most 


Protecting  a  tree  in  filled  land. 


trees  will  lose  their  bark  near  the  crown  if  the  dirt  is  piled 
against  them;  and  this  is  especially  true  if  the  water  tends 
to  settle  about  the  trunks.  Figure  65  shows  how  this  difficulty 
may  be  obviated.     A  well  is  stoned  up,  allowing  a  space  of  a 


EXECUTION  OF  SOME  OF  THE  LANDSCAPE  FEATURES     67 

foot  or  two  on  all  sides,  and  tile  drains  are  laid  about  the  base 
of  the  well,  as  shown  in  the  diagram  at  the  right.  A  grating  to 
cover  a  well  is  also  shown.  It  is  often  possible  to  make  a  slop- 
ing bank  just  above  the  tree,  and  to  allow  the  ground  to  fall 
away  from  the  roots  on  the  lower  side,  so  that  there  is  no  well 
or  hole ;  but  this  is  practicable  only  when  the  land  below  the 
tree  is  considerably  lower  than  that  above  it. 

If  much  of  the  surface  is  to  be  removed,  the  good  top  earth 
should  be  saved,  and  placed  back  on  the  area,  in  which  to  sow 
the  grass  seed  and  to  make  the  plantings.  This  top  soil  may  be 
piled  at  one  side  out  of  the  way  while  the  grading  is  proceeding. 

Walks  and  drives. 

So  far  as  the  picture  in  the  landscape  is  concerned,  walks  and 
drives  are  blemishes.  Since  they  are  necessary,  however, 
they  must  form  a  part  of  the  landscape  design.  They  should 
be  as  few  as  possible,  not  only  because  they  interfere  with  the 
artistic  composition,  but  also  because  they  are  expensive  to 
make  and  to  maintain. 

Most  places  have  too  many,  rather  than  too  few,  walks  and 
drives.  Small  city  areas  rarely  need  a  driveway  entrance, 
not  even  to  the  back  door.  The  back  yard  in  Fig.  39  illus- 
trates this  point.  The  distance  from  the  house  to  the  street 
on  the  back  is  about  ninety  feet,  yet  there  is  no  driveway  in  the 
place.  The  coal  and  provisions  are  carried  in;  and,  although 
the  deliverymen  may  complain  at  first,  they  very  soon  accept 
the  inevitable.  It  is  not  worth  the  while  to  maintain  a  drive 
in  such  a  place  for  the  convenience  of  truckmen  and  grocers. 
Neither  is  it  often  necessary  to  have  a  drive  in  the  front  yard 
if  the  house  is  within  seventy-five  or  one  hundred  feet  of  the 
street.  When  a  drive  is  necessary,  it  should  enter,  if  possible, 
at  the  side  of  the  residence,  and  not  make  a  circle  in  the  front 
lawn.  This  remark  may  not  apply  to  areas  of  a  half  acre  or 
more. 


68 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


The  drives  and  walks  should  be  direct.  They  should  go 
where  they  appear  to  go,  and  should  be  practically  the  shortest 
distances  between  the  points  to  be  reached.  Figure  66  illus- 
trates some  of  the  problems  connected  with  walks  to  the  front 
door.  A  common  type  of  walk  is  a,  and  it  is  a  nuisance.  The 
time  that  one  loses  in  going  around  the  cameo-set  in  the  center 
would  be  sufficient,  if  conserved,  to  lengthen  a  man's  life  by 
several  months  or  a  year.  Such  a  device  has  no  merit  in  art 
or  convenience.  Walk  h  is  better,  but  still  is  not  ideal,  inas- 
much as  it  makes  too  much  of  a  right-angled  curve,  and  the 

pedestrian  desires  to  cut  across 
the  corner.  Such  a  walk,  also, 
usually  extends  too  far  beyond  the 
corner  of  the  house  to  make  it  ap- 
pear to  be  direct.  It  has  the 
merit,  however,  of  leaving  the 
center  of  the  lawn  practically  un- 
touched. The  curve  in  walk  d  is 
ordinarily  unnecessary  unless  the 
ground  is  rolling.  In  small  places, 
like  this,  it  is  better  to  have  a 
straight  walk  directly  from  the 
sidewalk  to  the  house.  In  fact, 
this  is  true  in  nearly  all  cases  in  which  the  lawn  is  not  more 
than  forty  to  seventy-five  feet  deep.  Plan  c  is  also  inexcusable. 
A  straight  walk  would  answer  every  purpose  better.  Any 
walk  that  passes  the  house,  and  returns  to  it,  e,  is  inexcusable 
unless  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  very  steep  ascent.  If  most  of 
the  traveling  is  in  one  direction  from  the  house,  a  walk  like  / 
may  be  the  most  direct  and  efficient.  It  is  known  as  a  direct 
curve,  and  is  a  compound  of  a  concave  and  a  convex  curve. 

It  is  essential  that  any  service  walk  or  drive,  however  long, 
should  be  continuous  in  direction  and  design  from  end  to  end. 
Figure  67  illustrates  a  long  drive  that  contradicts  this  principle. 


GO.   Forms  of  front  walks. 


EXECUTION  OF  SOME  OF  THE  LANDSCAPE  FEATURES      69 


It  is  a  series  of  mean- 
ingless curves.  The 
reason  for  these  curves 
is  the  fact  that  the 
drive  was  extended 
from  time  to  time  as 
new  houses  were  added 
to  the  villa.  The 
reader  will  easily  per- 
ceive how  all  the  kinks 
might  be  taken  out  of 
this  drive  and  one  di- 
rect and  bold  curve 
be  substituted. 

The  question  of 
drainage,  curbing, 
and  gutters. 

Thorough  drainage, 
natural  or  artificial,  is 
essential  to  hard  and 
permanent  walks  and 
drives.  This  point  is 
too  often  neglected. 
On  the  draining  and 
grading  of  residence 
streets  a  well-known 
landscape  gardener, 
O.  C.  Simonds,  writes 
as  follows  in  ''Park 
and  Cemetery": 

''The  surface  drainage  is  something  that  interests  us  whenever 
it  rains  or  when  the  snow  melts.  It  has  been  customary  to 
locate  catch-basins  for  receiving  the  surface  water  at  street 


70 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


intersections.  This  arrangement  causes  most  of  the  surface 
water  from  both  streets  to  run  past  the  crossings,  making  it 
necessary  to  depress  the  pavement,  so  that  one  must  step  down 

and  up  in  going 
from  one  side  of 
a  street  to  the 
other,  or  else  a 
passageway  for 
the  water  must 
be  made  through 
the  crossing.  It 
may  be  said  that 
a  step  down 
to  the  pavement 
and  up  again  to 
the  sidewalk  at 
the  street  inter- 
sections is  of  no 
consequence,but 
it  is  really  more 
elegant  and  sat- 
isfactory to  have 
the  walk  practi- 
cally continuous 
(Fig.  68).  With 
the  catch-basin 
at  the  corner, 
the  stoppage  of 
the  inlet,  or  a 
great  fall  of  rain, 
sometimes  cov- 
ers the  crossing 


with    water,    so 
that    one    must 


EXECUTION  OF  SOME  OF  THE  LANDSCAPE  FEATURES      71 

either  wade  or  go  out  of  his  way.  With  catch-basins  placed 
in  the  center  of  the  blocks,  or,  if  the  blocks  are  long,  at  some 
distance  from  the  crossing,  the  intersections  can  be  kept  rela- 
tively high  and  dry.  Roadways  are  generally  made  crowning 
in  the  center  so  that  water  runs  to  the  sides,  but  frequently  the 
fall  lengthwise  of  the  roadway  is  less  than  it  should  be.  City 
engineers  are  usually  inclined  to  make  the  grade  along  the 
length  of  a  street  as  nearly  level  as  possible.  Authorities  who 
have  given  the  subject  of  roads  considerable  study  recommend 
a  fall  lengthwise  of  not  less  than  one  foot  in  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five,  nor  more  than  six  feet  in  one  hundred.  Such 
grades  are  not  always  feasible,  but  a  certain  amount  of  varia- 


69.  A  common  form,  of  edge  for  walk  or  drive.        70.   A  better  form. 

tion  in  level  can  usually  be  made  in  a  residence  street  which 
will  make  it  much  more  pleasing  in  appearance,  and  have  cer- 
tain practical  advantages  in  keeping  the  street  dry.  The  water 
is  usually  confined  to  the  edge  of  the  pavement  by  curbing, 
which  may  rise  anywhere  from  four  to  fourteen  inches  above 
the  surface.  This  causes  all  the  water  falling  on  the  roadway 
to  seek  the  catch-basin  and  be  wasted,  excepting  for  its  use  in 
flushing  the  sewer.  If  the  curbing,  which  is  really  unnecessary 
in  most  cases,  were  omitted,  much  of  the  surface  water  would 
soak  into  the  ground  between  the  sidewalk  and  the  pavement, 
doing  much  good  to  trees,  shrubs,  and  grass.  The  roots  of  the 
trees  naturally  extend  as  far,  or  farther,  than  their  branches, 
and  for  their  good  the  ground  under  the  pavement  and  side- 
walk should  be  supplied  with  a  certain  amount  of  moisture. 

''The  arrangement  made  for  the  removal  of  surface  water 
from  the  street  must  also  take  care  of  the  surplus  water  from 


72  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

adjacent  lots,  so  there  is  a  practical  advantage  in  having  the  level 
of  the  street  lower  than  that  of  the  ground  adjoining.  The 
appearance  of  houses  and  home  grounds  is  also  much  better 
when  they  are  higher  than  the  street,  and  for  this  reason  it  is 
usually  desirable  to  keep  the  latter  as  low  as  possible  and  give 
the  underground  pipes  sufficient  covering  to  protect  them  from 
frost.  Where  the  ground  is  high  and  the  sewers  very  deep, 
the  grades  should,  of  course,  be  determined  with  reference  to 
surface  conditions  only.  It  sometimes  happens  that  this  gen- 
eral arrangement  of  the  grades  of  home  grounds,  which  is 
desirable  on  most  accounts,  causes  water  from  melting  snow 
to  flow  over  the  sidewalk  in  the  winter  time,  where  it  may 
freeze  and  be  dangerous  to  pedestrians.  A  slight  depression  of 
the  lot  away  from  the  sidewalk  and  then  an  ascent  toward  the 
house  would  usually  remedy  this  difficulty,  and  also  make  the 
house  appear  higher.  Sometimes,  however,  a  pipe  should  be 
placed  underneath  the  sidewalk  to  allow  water  to  reach  the  street 
from  inside  of  the  lot  hne.  The  aim  in  surface  drainage  should 
always  be  to  keep  the  traveled  portions  of  the  street  in  the  most 
perfect  condition  for  use.  The  quick  removal  of  surplus  water 
from  sidewalks,  crossings,  and  roadways  will  help  insure  this 
result." 

These  remarks  concerning  the  curbings  and  hard  edges  of 
city  streets  may  also  be  applied  to  walks  and  drives  in  small 
grounds.  Figure  69,  for  example,  shows  the  common  method  of 
treating  the  edge  of  a  walk,  by  making  a  sharp  and  sheer  ele- 
vation. This  edge  needs  constant  trimming,  else  it  becomes 
unshapely;  and  this  trimming  tends  to  widen  the  walk.  For 
general  purposes,  a  border,  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  70,  is  better. 
The  sod  rolls  over  until  it  meets  the  walk,  and  the  lawn-mower 
is  able  to  keep  it  in  condition.  If  it  becomes  more  or  less  rough 
and  irregular,  it  is  pounded  down. 

If  it  is  thought  necessary  to  trim  the  edges  of  walks  and  drives, 
then  one  of  the  various  kinds  of  sod-cutters  that  are  sold  by 


EXECUTION  OF  SOME  OF  THE  LANDSCAPE  FEATURES     73 

dealers  may  be  used  for  the  purpose,  or  an  old  hoe  may  have  its 
shank  straightened  and  the  corners  of  the  blade  rounded  off,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  71,  and  this  will  answer  all  pur- 
poses of  the  common  sod-cutter;  or,  a  sharp, 
straight-edged  spade  may  sometimes  be  used. 
The  loose  overhanging  grass  on  these  edges  is 
ordinarily  cut  by  large  shears  made  for  the  pur- 
pose. 

Walks  and  drives  should  be  laid  in  such  direc- 
tion that  they  will  tend  to  drain  themselves; 
but  if  it  is  necessary  to  have  gutters,  these  should 
be  deep  and  sharp  at  the  bottom,  for  the  water 
then  draws  together  and  tends  to  keep  the  gutter 
clean.  A  shallow  and  rounded  brick  or  cobble 
gutter  does  not  clean  itself;  it  is  very  likely  to 
fill  with  weeds,  and  vehicles  often  drive  in  it.    '^   ^"''  '""^'• 

The  best  gutters  and  curbs 
are  now  made  of  cement. 
Figure  72  shows  a  catch 
basin  at  the  left  of  a  walk 
or  drive,  and  the  tile  laid 
underneath  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  away  the  surface 
water. 


72.   Draining  the  gutter  and  the  drive. 


The  materials. 

The  best  materials  for  the  main  walks  are  cement  and  stone 
flagging.  In  many  soils,  however,  there  is  enough  binding  ma- 
terial in  the  land  to  make  a  good  walk  without  the  addition  of 
any  other  material.  Gravel,  cinders,  ashes,  and  the  like,  are 
nearly  always  inadvisable,  for  they  are  liable  to  be  loose  in  dry 
weather  and  sticky  in  wet  weather.  In  the  laying  of  cement  it 
is  important  that  the  walk  be  well  drained  by  a  layer  of  a  foot 
or  two  of  broken  stone  or  brickbats,  unless  the  walk  is  on  loose 
and  leachy  land  or  in  a  frostless  country. 


74 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


In  back  yards  it  is  often  best  not  to  have  any  well-defined 
walk.  A  ramble  across  the  sod  may  be  as  good.  For  a  back 
walk,  over  which  delivery  men  are  to  travel,  one  of  the  very 
best  means  is  to  sink  a  foot-wide  plank  into  the  earth  on  a  level 
with  the  surface  of  the  sod;  and  it  is  not  necessary  that  the 
walk  be  perfectly  straight.  These  walks  do  not  interfere  with 
the  work  of  the  lawn-mower,  and  they  take  care  of  themselves. 


When  the  plank  rots, 
ten  years,  the  plank  is 
dropped  in  its  place. 


at  the  expiration  of  five  to 
taken  up  and  another  one 
This  ordinarily  makes  the 
best  kind  of  a  walk 
alongside  a  rear  border. 
(Plate  XL)  In  gardens, 
nothing  is  better  for  a 
walk  than  tanbark. 

The  sides  of  walks  and 
drives  may  often  be 
planted  with  shrubbery. 
It  is  not  necessary  that 
they  always  have  prim 
and  definite  borders. 
Figure  73  illustrates  a 
bank  of  foliage  which 
breaks  up  the  hard  line 
of  a  walk,  and  serves  also  as  a  border  for  the  growing  of 
flowers  and  interesting  specimens.  This  walk  is  also  character- 
ized by  the  absence  of  high  and  hard  borders.  Figure  68  illus- 
trates this  fact,  and  also  shows  how  the  parking  between  the 
walk  and  the  street  may  be  effectively  planted. 

Making  the  borders. 

The  borders  and  groups  of  planting  are  laid  out  on  the  paper 
plan.  There  are  several  ways  of  transferring  them  to  the 
ground.    Sometimes  they  are  not  made  until  after  the  lawn  is 


73.  Planting  alongside  a  walk. 


EXECUTION  OF  SOME  OF  THE  LANDSCAPE  FEATURES 


-^V^^iL 


established,  when  the  inexperienced  operator  may  more  readily 
lay  them  out.  Usually,  however,  the  planting  and  lawn-making 
proceed  more  or  less  simultaneously.  After  the  shaping  of  the 
ground  has  been  completed,  the  areas  are  marked  off  by  stakes, 
by  a  limp  rope  laid  on 
the  surface,  or  by  a  mark 
made  with  a  rake  handle. 
The  margin  once  deter- 
mined, the  lawn  may  be 
seeded  and  rolled  (Fig.  40), 
and  the  planting  allowed 
to  proceed  as  it  may;  or 
the  planting  may  all  be 
done  inside  the  borders, 
and  the  seeding  then  be 
applied  to  the  lawn.  If 
the  main  dimensions  of  the 
borders  and  beds  are  care- 
fully measured  and  marked 
by  stakes,  it  is  an  easy 
matter  to  complete  the  outline  by  making  a  mark  with  a  stick  or 
rakestale. 

The  planting  may  be  done  in  spring  or  fall,  —  in  fall  pref- 
erably if  the  stock  is  ready  (and  of  hardy  species)  and  the  land 


.i^^-'fi 


74.   A  bowered  pathway. 


Objects  for  pity. 


in  perfect  condition  of  drainage;  usually,  however,  things  are 
not  ready  early  enough  in  the  fall  for  any  extended  planting, 
and  the  work  is  commonlj^  done  as  soon  as  the  ground  settles 
in  spring  (see  Chapter  V).     Head  the  bushes  back.     Dig  up  the 


76 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


entire  area.  Spade  up  the  ground,  set  the  bushes  thick,  hoe 
them  at  intervals,  and  then  let  them  go.  If  you  do  not  like 
the  bare  earth  between  them,  sow  in  the  seeds  of  hardy  annual 
flowers,  like  phlox,  petunia,  alyssum,  and  pinks.  Never  set 
the  bushes  in  holes  dug  in  the  old  sod  (Fig.  75) .  The  person  who 
plants  his  shrubs  in  holes  in  the  sward  does  not  seriously  mean  to 
make  any  foliage  mass,  and  it  is  hkely  that  he  does  not  know 
what  relation  the  border  mass  has  to  artistic  planting.  The 
illustration.  Fig.  76,  shows  the  office  that  a  shrubbery  may  per- 
form in  relation  to  a  building;  this  particular  building  was 
erected  in  an  open  field. 


XtJ-' . 


76. 


A  border  group,  limiting  the  space  next  the  residence  and  separating  it 
from  the  fields  and  the  clothes-vards. 


I  have  said  to  plant  the  bushes  thick.  This  is  for  quick  effect. 
It  is  an  easy  matter  to  thin  the  plantation  if  it  becomes  too  thick. 
All  common  bushes  may  usually  be  planted  as  close  as  two  to 
three  feet  apart  each  way,  especially  if  one  gets  many  of  them 
from  the  fields,  so  that  he  does  not  have  to  buy  them.  If 
there  are  not  sufficient  of  the  permanent  bushes  for  thick  plant- 
ing, the  spaces  may  be  filled  temporarily  by  cheaper  or  com- 
moner bushes;  but  do  not  forget  to  remove  the  fillers  as  rapidly 
as  the  others  need  the  room. 


EXECUTION  OF  SOME  OF  THE  LANDSCAPE  FEATURES      11 

Making  the  lawn. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  in  the  making  of  a  lawn  is  to  estab- 
lish the  proper  grade.  This  should  be  worked  out  with  the 
greatest  care,  from  the  fact  that  when  a  lawn  is  once  made,  it 
should  not  be  necessary  to  change  its  level  and  contour. 

Preparing  the  ground. 

The  next  important  step  is  to  prepare  the  ground  deeply  and 
thoroughly.  The  permanence  of  the  sod  will  depend  very 
largely  on  the  fertility  and  preparation  of  the  soil  in  the  begin- 
ning. The  soil  should  be  deep  and  porous,  so  that  the  roots  will 
strike  far  into  it,  and  be  enabled  thereby  to  withstand  droughts 
and  cold  winters.  The  best  means  of  deepening  the  soil,  as  ex- 
plained in  Chapter  IV,  is  by  tile-draining;  but  it  can  also  be  ac- 
comphshed  to  some  extent  by  the  use  of  the  subsoil  plow  and 
by  trenching.  Since  the  lawn  cannot  be  refitted,  however, 
the  subsoil  is  likely  to  fall  back  into  a  hard-pan  in  a  few  years 
if  it  has  been  subsoiled  or  trenched,  whereas  a  good  tile-drain 
affords  a  permanent  amelioration  of  the  under  soil.  Soils  that 
are  naturally  loose  and  porous  may  not  need  this  extra  attention. 
In  fact,  lands  that  are  very  loose  and  sandy  may  require  to 
be  packed  or  cemented  rather  than  loosened.  One  of  the  best 
means  of  doing  this  is  to  fill  them  with  humus,  so  that  the  water 
will  not  leach  through  them  rapidly.  Nearly  all  lands  that  are 
designed  for  lawns  are  greatly  benefited  by  heavy  dressings  of 
manure  thoroughly  worked  into  them  in  the  beginning,  although 
it  is  possible  to  get  the  ground  too  rich  on  the  surface  at  first; 
it  is  not  necessary  that  all  the  added  plant-food  be  immediately 
available. 

The  lawn  will  profit  by  an  annual  application  of  good  chem- 
ical fertilizer.  Ground  bone  is  one  of  the  best  materials  to 
apply,  at  the  rate  of  three  hundred  to  four  hundred  pounds  to 
the  acre.     It  is  usually  sown  broadcast,  early  in  spring.     Dis- 


78  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

solved  South  Carolina  rock  may  be  used  instead,  but  the  appH- 
cation  will  need  to  be  heavier  if  similar  results  are  expected. 
Yellow  and  poor  grass  may  often  be  reinvigorated  by  an  appli- 
cation of  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  pounds  to  the  acre  of 
nitrate  of  soda.  Wood  ashes  are  often  good,  particularly  on 
soils  that  tend  to  be  acid.  Muriate  of  potash  is  not  so  often 
used,  although  it  may  produce  excellent  results  in  some  cases. 
There  is  no  invariable  rule.  The  best  plan  is  for  the  lawn-maker 
to  try  the  different  treatments  on  a  little  piece  or  corner  of  the 
lawn;  in  this  way,  he  should  secure  more  valuable  information 
than  can  be  got  otherwise. 

The  first  operation  after  draining  and  grading  is  the  plowing 
or  spading  of  the  surface.  If  the  area  is  large  enough  to  admit 
a  team,  the  surface  is  worked  down  by  means  of  harrows  of 
various  kinds.  Afterwards  it  is  leveled  by  means  of  shovels  and 
hoes,  and  finally  by  garden  rakes.  The  more  finely  and  com- 
pletely the  soil  is  pulverized,  the  quicker  the  lawn  may  be 
secured,  and  the  more  permanent  are  the  results. 

The  kind  of  grass. 

The  best  grass  for  the  body  or  foundation  of  lawns  in  the 
North  is  June-grass  or  Kentucky  blue-grass  {Poa  pratensis), 
not  Canada  blue-grass  (Poa  compressa). 

Whether  white  clover  or  other  seed  should  be  sown  with  the 
grass  seed  is  very  largely  a  personal  question.  Some  persons 
like  it,  and  others  do  not.  If  it  is  desired,  it  may  be  sown 
directly  after  the  grass  seed  is  sown,  at  the  rate  of  one  to  four 
quarts  or  more  to  the  acre. 

For  special  purposes,  other  grasses  may  be  used  for  lawns. 
Various  kinds  of  lawn  mixtures  are  on  the  market,  for  particu- 
lar uses,  and  some  of  them  are  very  good. 

A  superintendent  of  parks  in  one  of  the  Eastern  cities  gives 
the  following  experience  on  kinds  of  grass:  ''  For  the  meadows 
on  the  large  parks  we  generally  use  extra  recleaned  Kentucky 


EXECUTION  OF  SOME  OF  THE  LANDSCAPE  FEATURES     79 

blue-grass,  red-top,  and  white  clover,  in  the  proportion  of  thirty 
pounds  of  blue-grass,  thirty  pounds  of  red-top,  and  ten  pounds  of 
white  clover  to  the  acre.  Sometimes  we  use  for  smaller  lawns 
the  blue-grass  and  red-top  without  the  white  clover.  We  have 
used  blue-grass,  red-top,  and  Rhode  Island  bent  in  the  propor- 
tion of  twenty  pounds  each,  and  ten  pounds  of  white  clover  to 
the  acre,  but  the  Rhode  Island  bent  is  so  expensive  that  we 
rarely  buy  it.  For  grass  in  shady  places,  as  in  a  grove,  we  use 
Kentucky  blue-grass  and  rough-stalked  meadow-grass  {Poa 
trivialis)  in  equal  parts  at  the  rate  of  seventy  pounds  to  the 
acre.  On  the  golf  links  we  use  blue-grass  without  any  mixture 
on  some  of  the  putting  greens;  sometimes  we  use  Rhode  Island 
bent,  and  on  sandy  greens  we  use  red-top.  We  always  buy 
each  kind  of  seed  separately  and  mix  them,  and  are  particular 
to  get  the  best  extra  recleaned  of  each  kind.  Frequently  we 
get  the  seed  of  three  different  dealers  to  secure  the  best." 

In  most  cases,  the  June-grass  germinates  and  grows  some- 
what slowly,  and  it  is  usually  advisable  to  sow  four  or  five 
quarts  of  timothy  grass  to  the  acre  with  the  June-grass  seed. 
The  timothy  comes  on  quickly  and  makes  a  green  the  first  year, 
and  the  June-grass  soon  crowds  it  out.  It  is  not  advisable  to 
sow  grain  in  the  lawn  as  a  nurse  to  the  grass.  If  the  land  is 
well  prepared  and  the  seed  is  sown  in  the  cool  part  of  the  year, 
the  grass  ought  to  grow  much  better  without  the  other  crops 
than  with  them.  Lands  that  are  hard  and  lacking  in  nitrogen 
may  be  benefited  if  crimson  clover  (four  or  five  quarts)  is 
sown  with  the  grass  seed.  This  will  make  a  green  the  first  year, 
and  will  break  up  the  subsoil  by  its  deep  roots  and  supply  nitro- 
gen, and  being  an  annual  plant  it  does  not  become  trouble- 
some, if  mown  frequently  enough  to  prevent  seeding. 

In  the  southern  states,  where  June-grass  does  not  thrive, 
Bermuda-grass  is  the  leading  species  used  for  lawns;  although 
there  are  two  or  three  others,  as  the  goose-grass  of  Florida,  that 
may  be  used  in  special  localities.     Bermuda-grass  is  usually 


80  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

propagated  by  roots,  but  imported  seed  (said  to  be  from  Austra- 
lia) is  now  available.  The  Bermuda-grass  becomes  reddish 
after  frost;  and  English  rye-grass  may  be  sown  on  the  Bermuda 
sod  in  August  or  September  far  south  for  winter  green;  in 
spring  the  Bermuda  crowds  it  out. 

When  and  how  to  sow  the  seed. 

The  lawn  should  be  seeded  when  the  land  is  moist  and  the 
weather  comparatively  cool.  It  is  ordinarily  most  advisable  to 
grade  the  lawn  in  late  summer  or  early  fall,  because  the  land  is 
then  comparatively  dry  and  can  be  moved  cheaply.  The  surface 
can  also  be  got  in  condition,  perhaps,  for  sowing  late  in  Septem- 
ber or  early  in  October  in  the  North;  or,  if  the  surface  has  re- 
quired much  filling,  it  is  well  to  leave  it  in  a  somewhat  unfinished 
state  until  spring,  in  order  that  the  soft  places  may  settle  and 
then  be  refilled  before  the  seeding  is  done.  If  the  seed  can  be 
sown  early  in  the  fall,  before  the  rains  come,  the  grass  should  be 
large  enough,  except  in  northernmost  localities,  to  withstand  the 
winter;  but  it  is  generally  most  desirable  to  sow  in  very  early 
spring.  If  the  land  has  been  thoroughly  prepared  in  the  fall, 
the  seed  may  be  sown  on  one  of  the  late  light  snows  in  spring  and 
as  the  snow  melts  the  seed  is  carried  into  the  land,  and  germi- 
nates very  quickly.  If  the  seed  is  sown  when  the  land  is  loose 
and  workable,  it  should  be  raked  in ;  and  if  the  weather  promises 
to  be  dry  or  the  sowing  is  late,  the  surface  should  be  rolled. 

The  seeding  is  usually  done  broadcast  by  hand  on  all  small 
areas,  the  sower  going  both  ways  (at  right  angles)  across  the 
area  to  lessen  the  likelihood  of  missing  any  part.  Steep  banks 
are  sometimes  sown  with  seed  that  is  mixed  in  mold  or  earth  to 
which  water  is  added  until  the  material  will  just  run  through 
the  spout  of  a  watering-can;  the  material  is  then  poured  on  the 
surface,  which  is  first  made  loose. 

Inasmuch  as  we  desire  to  secure  many  very  fine  stalks  of 
grass  rather  than  a  few  large  ones,  it  is  essential  that  the  seed 


EXECUTION  OF  SOME  OF  THE  LANDSCAPE  FEATURES      81 

be  sown  very  thick.     Three  to  five  bushels  to  the  acre  is  the 
ordinary  appHcation  of  grass  seed  (page  79). 

Securing  a  firm  sod. 

The  lawn  will  ordinarily  produce  a  heavy  crop  of  weeds  the 
first  year,  especially  if  much  stable  manure  has  been  used. 
The  weeds  need  not  be  pulled,  unless  such  vicious  intruders  as 
docks  or  other  perennial  plants  gain  a  foothold;  but  the  area 
should  be  mown  frequently  with  a  lawn-mower.  The  annual 
weeds  die  at  the  approach  of  cold,  and  they  are  kept  down  by 
the  use  of  the  lawn-mower,  while  the  grass  is  not  injured. 

It  rarely  happens  that  every  part  of  the  lawn  will  have  an 
equal  catch  of  grass.  The  bare  or  sparsely  seeded  places  should 
be  sown  again  every  fall  and  spring  until  the  lawn  is  finally  com- 
plete. In  fact,  it  requires  constant  attention  to  keep  a  lawn 
in  good  sod,  and  it  must  be  continuously  in  the  process  of  mak- 
ing. It  is  not  every  lawn  area,  or  every  part  of  the  area,  that  is 
adapted  to  grass;  and  it  may  require  long  study  to  find  out  why 
it  is  not.  Bare  or  poor  places  should  be  hetcheled  up  strongly 
with  an  iron-toothed  rake,  perhaps  fertilized  again,  and  then 
reseeded.  It  is  unusual  that  a  lawn  does  not  need  repairing 
every  year.  Lawns  of  several  acres  which  become  thin  and 
mossy  may  be  treated  in  essentially  the  same  way  by  dragging 
them  with  a  spike-tooth  harrow  in  early  spring  as  soon  as  the 
land  is  dry  enough  to  hold  a  team.  Chemical  fertilizers  and 
grass  seed  are  now  sown  liberally,  and  the  area  is  perhaps 
dragged  again,  although  this  is  not  always  essential;  and  then 
the  roller  is  applied  to  bring  the  surface  into  a  smooth  condition. 
To  plow  up  these  poor  lawns  is  to  renew  all  the  battle  with  weeds, 
and  really  to  make  no  progress ;  for,  so  long  as  the  contour  is 
correct,  the  lawn  may  be  repaired  by  these  surface  applications. 

The  stronger  the  sward,  the  less  the  trouble  with  weeds  ;  yet 
it  is  practically  impossible  to  keep  dandelions  and  some  other 
weeds  out  of  lawns  except  by  cutting  them  out  with  a  knife 


82  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

thrust  underground  (there  are  good  spuds  manufactured  for 
this  purpose,  Figs.  108  to  111).  If  the  sod  is  very  thin  after 
the  weeds  are  removed,  sow  more  grass  seed. 

The  mowing. 

The  mowing  of  the  lawn  should  begin  as  soon  as  the  grass  is 
tall  enough  in  the  spring  and  continue  at  the  necessary  intervals 
throughout  the  summer.  The  most  frequent  mowings  are 
needed  early  in  the  season,  when  the  grass  is  growing  rapidly. 
If  it  is  mown  frequently  —  say  once  or  twice  a  week  —  in  the 
periods  of  most  vigorous  growth,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
rake  off  the  mo^vings.  In  fact,  it  is  preferable  to  leave  the 
grass  on  the  lawn,  to  be  driven  into  the  surface  by  the  rains 
and  to  afford  a  mulch.  It  is  only  when  the  lawn  has  been  neg- 
lected and  the  grass  has  got  so  high  that  it  becomes  unsightly 
on  the  lawn,  or  when  the  growth  is  unusually  luxurious,  that 
it  is  necessary  to  take  it  off.  In  dry  weather  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  mow  the  lawn  any  more  than  absolutely  necessary. 
The  grass  should  be  rather  long  when  it  goes  into  the  winter. 
In  the  last  two  months  of  open  weather  the  grass  makes  small 
growth,  and  it  tends  to  lop  down  and  to  cover  the  surface 
densely,  which  it  should  be  allowed  to  do. 

Fall  treatment. 

As  a  rule,  it  is  not  necessary  to  rake  all  the  leaves  off  lawns  in 
the  fall.  They  afford  an  excellent  mulch,  and  in  the  autumn 
months  the  leaves  on  the  lawn  are  among  the  most  attractive 
features  of  the  landscape.  The  leaves  generally  blow  off  after 
a  time,  and  if  the  place  has  been  constructed  with  an  open  center 
and  heavily  planted  sides,  the  leaves  will  be  caught  in  these 
masses  of  trees  and  shrubs  and  there  afford  an  excellent  mulch. 
The  ideal  landscape  planting,  therefore,  takes  care  of  itself  to 
a  very  large  extent.     It  is  bad  economy  to  burn  the  leaves, 


EXECUTION  OF  SOME  OF  THE  LANDSCAPE  FEATURES      83 

especially  if  one  has  herbaceous  borders,  roses,  and  other  plants 
that  need  a  mulch.  When  the  leaves  are  taken  off  the  borders 
in  the  spring,  they  should  be  piled  with  the  manure  or  other 
refuse  and  there  allowed  to  pass  into  compost  (pages  110,  111). 
If  the  land  has  been  well  prepared  in  the  beginning,  and  its 
life  is  not  sapped  by  large  trees,  it  is  ordinarily  unnecessary 
to  cover  the  lawn  with  manure  in  the  fall.  The  common  prac- 
tice of  covering  grass  with  raw  manure  should  be  discouraged 
because  the  material  is  unsightly  and  unsavory,  and  the  same 
results  can  be  got  with  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  combined 
with  dressings  of  very  fine  and  well-rotted  compost  or  manure, 
and  by  not  raking  the  lawn  too  clean  of  the  mowings  of  the  grass. 

Spring  treatment. 

Every  spring  the  lawn  should  be  firmed  by  means  of  a  roller, 
or,  if  the  area  is  small,  by  means  of  a  pounder,  or  the  back  of  a 
spade  in  the  hands  of  a  vigorous  man.  The  lawn-mower  itself 
tends  to  pack  the  surface.  If  there  are  little  irregularities 
in  the  surface,  caused  by  depressions  of  an  inch  or  so,  and  the 
highest  places  are  not  above  the  contour-line  of  the  lawn,  the 
surface  may  be  brought  to  level  by  spreading  fine,  mellow  soil 
over  it,  thereby  filling  up  the  depressions.  The  grass  will 
quickly  grow  through  this  soil.  Little  hummocks  may  be 
cut  off,  some  of  the  earth  removed,  and  the  sod  replaced. 

Watering  lawns. 

The  common  watering  of  lawns  by  means  of  lawn  sprinklers 
usually  does  more  harm  than  good.  This  results  from  the  fact 
that  the  watering  is  generally  done  in  clear  weather,  and  the 
water  is  thrown  through  the  air  in  very  fine  spray,  so  that  a 
considerable  part  of  it  is  lost  in  vapor.  The  ground  is  also  hot, 
and  the  water  does  not  pass  deep  into  the  soil.  If  the  lawn  is 
watered  at  all,  it  should  be  soaked;  turn  on  the  hose  at  night- 
fall and  let  it  run  until  the  land  is  wet  as  deep  as  it  is  dry,  then 


84  •    MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

move  the  hose  to  another  place.  A  thorough  soaking  Hke  this, 
a  few  times  in  a  dry  summer,  will  do  more  good  than  sprin- 
kling every  day.  If  the  land  is  deeply  prepared  in  the  first  place, 
so  that  the  roots  strike  far  into  the  soil,  there  is  rarely  need  of 
watering  unless  the  place  is  arid,  the  season  unusually  dry,  or 
the  moisture  sucked  out  by  trees.  The  surface  sprinkling  en- 
genders a  tendency  of  roots  to  start  near  the  surface,  and  there- 
fore the  more  the  lawn  is  lightly  watered,  the  greater  is  the 
necessity  for  watering  it. 

Sodding  the  lawn. 

Persons  who  desire  to  secure  a  lawn  very  quickly  may  sod 
the  area  rather  than  seed  it,  although  the  most  permanent 
results  are  usually  secured  by  seeding.  Sodding,  however,  is 
expensive,  and  is  to  be  used  only  about  the  borders  of  the 
place,  near  buildings,  or  in  areas  in  which  the  owner  can  afford 
to  expend  considerable  money.  The  best  sod  is  that  which  is 
secured  from  an  old  pasture,  and  for  two  or  three  reasons.     In 

the  first  place,  it  is  the  right  kind 
of  grass,  the  June-grass  (in  the 
North)  being  the  species  that  often- 
est  runs  into  pastures  and  crowds 
out  other  plants.  Again,  it  has 
been  so  closely  eaten  down,  espe- 

77.   Cutting  sod  for  a  lawn.  ^.^jj^   -^   -^   ^^^   ^^^^    pastured    by 

sheep,  that  it  has  made  a  very  dense  and  well-filled  sod,  which 
can  be  rolled  up  in  thin  layers.  In  the  third  place,  the  soil  in 
old  pastures  is  likely  to  be  rich  from  the  droppings  of  animals. 
In  taking  sod,  it  is  important  that  it  be  cut  very  thin.  An 
inch  and  a  half  thick  is  usually  ample.  It  is  ordinarily  rolled 
up  in  strips  a  foot  wide  and  of  any  length  that  will  allow  the 
rolls  to  be  handled  by  one  or  two  men.  A  foot-wide  board  is 
laid  upon  the  turf,  and  the  sod  cut  along  either  edge  of  it.  One 
person  then  stands  upon  the  strip  of  sod  and  rolls  it  towards 


EXECUTION  OF  SOME  OF  THE  LANDSCAPE  FEATURES     85 

himself,  while  another  cuts  it  loose  with  a  spade,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  77.  When  the  sod  is  laid,  it  is  unrolled  on  the  land 
and  then  firmly  beaten  down.  Land  that  is  to  be  sodded 
should  be  soft  on  top,  so  that  the  sod  can  be  well  pounded 
into  it.  If  the  sod  is  not  well  pounded  down,  it  will  settle 
unevenly  and  present  a  bad  surface,  and  will  also  dry  out  and 
perhaps  not  live  through  a  dry  spell.  It  is  almost  impossible 
to  pound  down  sod  too  firm.  If  the  land  is  freshly  plowed, 
it  is  important  that  the  borders  that  are  sodded  be  an  inch  or 
two  lower  than  the  adjacent  land,  because  the  land  will  set- 
tle in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks.  In  a  dry  time,  the  sod  may  be 
covered  from  a  half  inch  to  an  inch  with  fine,  mellow  soil  as  a 
mulch.  The  grass  should  grow  through  this  soil  without  diffi- 
culty. Upon  terraces  and  steep  banks,  the  sod  may  be  held 
in  place  by  driving  wooden  pegs  through  it. 

A  combination  of 

sodding  and  seeding. 

An  '^  economical  sodding  "  is  described  in  ''American  Garden  " 
(Fig.  78) :  "To  obtain  sufficient  sod  of  suitable  quality  for  cov- 
ering terrace-slopes  or  small  blocks  that  for  any  reason  cannot 
well  be  seeded  is  often  a  difficult  matter.  In  the  accompany- 
ing illustration  we  show  how  a  surface  of  sod  may  be  used  to 
good  advantage  over  a  larger  area  than  its  real  measurement 
represents.     This  is  done  by  laying  the  sods,  cut  in  strips  from 


78.   Economical  sodding,  the  spaces  being  seeded. 


86  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

six  to  ten  inches  wide,  in  lines  and  cross-lines,  and  after  filling 
the  spaces  with  good  soil,  sowing  these  spaces  with  grass-seed. 
Should  the  catch  of  seed  for  any  reason  be  poor,  the  sod  of  the 
strips  will  tend  to  spread  over  the  spaces  between  them,  and 
failure  to  obtain  a  good  sward  within  a  reasonable  time  is 
almost  out  of  the  question.  Also,  if  one  needs  sod  and  has  no 
place  from  which  to  cut  it  except  the  lawn,  by  taking  up  blocks 
of  sod,  leaving  strips  and  cross-strips,  and  treating  the  surface 
as  described,  the  bare  places  are  soon  covered  with  green." 

Sowing  with  sod. 

Lawns  may  be  sown  with  pieces  of  sods  rather  than  with 
seeds.  Sods  may  be  cut  up  into  bits  an  inch  or  two  square, 
and  these  may  be  scattered  broadcast  over  the  area  and  rolled 
into  the  land.  While  it  is  preferable  that  the  pieces  should 
he  right  side  up,  this  is  not  necessary  if  they  are  cut  thin,  and 
sown  when  the  weather  is  cool  and  moist.  Sowing  pieces  of  sod 
is  good  practice  when  it  is  difficult  to  secure  a  catch  from  seed. 

If  one  were  to  maintain  a  permanent  sod  garden,  at  one  side, 
for  the  selecting  and  growing  of  the  very  best  sod  (as  he  would 
grow  a  stock  seed  of  corn  or  beans),  this  method  should  be  the 
most  rational  of  all  procedures,  at  least  until  the  time  that  we 
produce  strains  of  lawn  grass  that  come  true  from  seeds. 

Other  ground  covers. 

Under  trees,  and  in  other  shady  places,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  cover  the  ground  with  something  else  than  grass.  Good 
plants  for  such  uses  are  periwinkle  (Vinca  minor,  an  evergreen 
trailer,  often  called  '^ running  myrtle")?  moneywort  {Lysi- 
machia  nummularia) ,  lily-of-the-valley,  and  various  kinds  of 
sedge  or  carex.  In  some  dark  or  shady  places,  and  under 
some  kinds  of  trees,  it  is  practically  impossible  to  secure  a 
good  lawn,  and  one  may  be  obliged  to  resort  to  decumbent 
bushes  or  other  forms  of  planting. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE    HANDLING    OF   THE    LAND 

Almost  any  land  contains  enough  food  for  the  growing  of 
good  crops,  but  the  food  elements  may  be  chemically  unavail- 
able, or  there  may  be  insufficient  water  to  dissolve  them.  It 
is  too  long  a  story  to  explain  at  this  place,  —  the  philosophy  of 
tillage  and  of  enriching  the  land,  —  and  the  reader  who  desires 
to  make  excursions  into  this  delightful  subject  should  consult 
King  on  "The  Soil,"  Roberts  on  "The  Fertihty  of  the  Land," 
and  recent  writings  of  many  kinds.  The  reader  must  accept 
my  word  for  it  that  tilling  the  land  renders  it  productive. 

I  must  call  my  reader's  attention  to  the  fact  that  this  book 
is  on  the  making  of  gardens,  —  on  the  planning  and  the  doing 
of  the  work  from  the  year's  end  to  end,  —  not  on  the  apprecia- 
tion of  a  completed  garden.  I  want  the  reader  to  know  that  a 
garden  is  not  worth  having  unless  he  makes  it  with  his  own 
hands  or  helps  to  make  it.  He  must  work  himself  into  it. 
He  must  know  the  pleasure  of  preparing  the  land,  of  contend- 
ing with  bugs  and  all  other  difficulties,  for  it  is  only  thereby 
that  he  comes  into  appreciation  of  the  real  value  of  a  garden. 

I  am  saying  this  to  prepare  the  reader  for  the  work  that  I 
lay  out  in  this  chapter.  I  want  him  to  know  the  real  joy  that 
there  is  in  the  simple  processes  of  breaking  the  earth  and  fitting 
it  for  the  seed.  The  more  pains  he  takes  with  these  processes, 
naturally  the  keener  will  be  his  enjoyment  of  them.  No  one 
can  have  any  other  satisfaction  than  that  of  mere  manual  exer- 
cise if  he  does  not  know  the  reasons  for  what  he  does  with  his 
soil.  I  am  sure  that  my  keenest  delight  in  a  garden  comes  in 
the  one  month  of  the  opening  season  and  the  other  month  of 

87 


88 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


the  closing  season.  These  are  the  months  when  I  work 
hardest  and  when  I  am  nearest  the  soil.  To  feel  the  thrust  of 
the  spade,  to  smell  the  sweet  earth,  to  prepare  for  the  young 
plants  and  then  to  prepare  for  the  closing  year,  to  handle  the 
tools  with  discrimination,  to  guard  against  frost,  to  be  close 
with  the  rain  and  wind,  to  see  the  young  things  start  into  life 
and  then  to  see  them  go  down  into  winter,  —  these  are  some  of 
the  best  of  the  joys  of  gardening.  In  this  spirit  we  should  take 
up  the  work  of  handhng  the  land. 

The  draining  of  the  land. 

The  first  step  in  the  preparation  of  land,  after  it  has  been 
thoroughly  cleared  and  subdued  of  forest  or  previous  vegetation, 
is  to  attend  to  the  drainage.  All  land  that 
is  springy,  low,  and  ''sour,"  or  that  holds 
the  water  in  puddles  for  a  day  or  two  fol- 
lowing heavy  rains,  should  be  thoroughly 
underdrained.  Draining  also  improves 
the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  even 
when  the  land  does  not  need  the  removal 
of  superfluous  water.  In  hard  lands,  it 
lowers  the  water-table,  or  tends  to  loosen 
and  aerate  the  soil  to  a  greater  depth, 
and  thereby  enables  it  to  hold  more  water 
without  injury  to  plants.  Drainage  is 
ing  oo  s.  particularly  useful  in  dry  but  hard  garden 
lands,  because  these  lands  are  often  in  sod  or  permanently 
planted,  and  the  soil  cannot  be  broken  up  by  deep  tillage. 
Tile  drainage  is  permanent  subsoiling. 

Hard-baked  cylindrical  tiles  make  the  best  and  most  per- 
manent drains.  The  ditches  usually  should  not  be  less  than 
two  and  one-half  feet  deep,  and  three  or  three  and  one-half 
feet  is  often  better.  In  most  garden  areas,  drains  may  be 
laid  with  profit  as  often  as  every  thirty  feet.     Give  all  drains 


79. 


THE  HANDLING   OF   THE  LAND 


89 


a  good  and  continuous  fall.  For  single  drains  and  for  laterals 
not  over  four  hundred  or  five  hundred  feet  long,  a  two  and  one- 
half  inch  tile  is  sufficient,  unless  much  water  must  be  carried 
from  swales  or  springs.  In  stony  countries,  flat  stones  may  be 
used  in  place  of  tiles,  and  persons  who  are  skillful  in  laying 
them  make  drains  as  good  and  permanent  as  those  constructed 
of  tiles.  The  tiles  or  stones  are  covered  with  sods,  straw,  or 
paper,  and  the  earth  is  then  filled  in.     This  temporary  cover 


keeps  the  loose  dirt  out  of  the  tiles,  and  by  the  time  it  is  rotted 
the  earth  has  settled  into  place. 

In  small  places,  ditching  must  ordinarily  be  done  wholly 
with  hand  tools.  A  common  spade  and  pick  are  the  imple- 
ments usually  employed,  although  a  spade  with  a  long  handle 
and  narrow  blade,  as  shown  in  Fig.  79,  is  very  useful  for  exca- 
vating the  bottom  of  the  ditch. 

In  most  cases,  much  time  and  muscle  are  wasted  in  the  use  of 
the  pick.  If  the  digging  is  properly  done,  a  spade  can  be  used 
to  cut  the  soil,  even  in  fairly  hard  clay  land,  with  no  great 
difficulty.  The  essential  point  in  the  easy  use  of  the  spade 
is  to  manage  so  that  one  edge  of  the  spade  always  cuts  a  free 
or  exposed  surface.  The  illustration  (Fig.  80)  will  explain  the 
method.     When  the  operator  endeavors  to  cut  the  soil  in  the 


90 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


method  shown  at  a,  he  is  obliged  to  break  both  edges  at  every 
thrust  of  the  tool;  but  when  he  cuts  the  slice  diagonally,  first 
throAving  his  spade  to  the  right  and  then  to  the  left,  as  shown 
at  B,  he  cuts  only  one  side  and  is  able  to  make  progress  without 
the  expenditure  of  useless  effort.  These  remarks  will  apply  to 
any  spading  of  the  land. 

In  large  areas,  horses  may  be  used  to  facilitate  the  work  of 
ditching.  There  are  ditching  plows  and  machines,  which, 
however,  need  not  be  discussed  here;  but  three  or  four  furrows 
may  be  thrown  out  in  either  direction  with  a  strong  plow,  and 
a  subsoil  plow  be  run  behind  to  break  up  the  hard-pan,  and 
this  may  reduce  the  labor  of  digging  as  much  as  one-half. 
When  the  excavating  is  completed,  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  is 
evened  up  by  means  of  a  line  or  level,  and  the  bed  for  the 
tiles  is  prepared  by  the  use  of  a  goose-neck  scoop,  shown  in 
Fig.  79.  It  is  very  important  that  the  outlets  of  drains  be  kept 
free  of  weeds  and  litter.  If  the  outlet  is  built  up  with  mason 
work,  to  hold  the  end  of  the  tile  intact,  very  much  will  be  added 
to  the  permanency  of  the  drain. 

Trenching  and  suhsoiling. 

Although  underdraining  is  the  most  important  means  of 
increasing  the  depth  of  the  soil,  it  is  not  always  practicable 


81.   Trenching  with  a  spade. 


to  lay  drains  through  garden  lands.  In  such  cases,  recourse 
is  had  to  very  deep  preparation  of  the  land,  either  every  year 
or  every  two  or  three  years. 


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THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  LAND  91 

In  small  garden  areas,  this  deep  preparation  will  ordinarily 
be  done  by  trenching  with  a  spade.  This  operation  of  trench- 
ing consists  in  breaking  up  the  earth  two  spades  deep.  Figure  81 
explains  the  operation.  The  section  at  the  left  shows  a  single 
spading,  the  earth  being  thrown  over  to  the  right,  leaving  the 
subsoil  exposed  the  whole  width  of  the  bed.  The  section  at 
the  right  shows  a  similar  operation,  so  far  as  the  surface  spading 
is  concerned,  but  the  subsoil  has  also  been  cut  as  fast  as  it  has 
been  exposed.   This  under  soil  is  not  thrown  out  on  the  surface, 


82.   Home-made  subsoil  plow. 

and  usually  it  is  not  inverted;  but  a  spadeful  is  lifted  and  then 
allowed  to  drop  so  that  it  is  thoroughly  broken  and  pulverized 
in  the  manipulation. 

In  all  lands  that  have  a  hard  and  high  subsoil,  it  is  usually 
essential  to  practice  trenching  if  the  best  results  are  to  be 
secured;  this  is  especially  true  when  deep-rooted  plants,  as 
beets,  parsnips,  and  other  root-crops,  are  to  be  grown;  it  pre- 
pares the  soil  to  hold  moisture;  and  it  allows  the  water  of  heavy 
rainfall  to  pass  to  greater  depths  rather  than  to  be  held  as 
puddles  and  in  mud  on  the  surface. 

In  places  that  can  be  entered  with  a  team,  deep  and  heavy 
plowing  to  the  depth  of  seven  to  ten  inches  may  be  desirable 
on  hard  lands^  especially  if  such  lands  cannot  be  plowed  very 


92  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

often;  and  the  depth  of  the  pulverization  is  often  extended 
by  means  of  the  subsoil  plow.  This  subsoil  plow  does  not  turn 
a  furrow,  but  a  second  team  draws  the  implement  behind  the 
ordinary  plow,  and  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  is  loosened  and 


83.   Forms  of  subsoil  plows. 

broken.  Figure  82  shows  a  home-made  subsoil  plow,  and  Fig. 
83  two  types  of  commercial  tools.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
it  is  the  hardest  lands  that  need  subsoiling  and  that,  therefore, 
the  subsoil  plow  should  be  exceedingly  strong. 

Preparation  of  the  surface. 

Every  pains  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  surface  of  the 
land  from  becoming  crusty  or  baked,  for  the  hard  surface  estab- 
lishes a  capillary  connection  with  the  moist  soil  beneath,  and  is 
a  means  of  passing  off  the  water  into  the  atmosphere.  Loose 
and  mellow  soil  also  has  more  free  plant-food,  and  provides 
the  most  congenial  conditions  for  the  growth  of  plants.  The 
tools  that  one  may  use  in  preparing  the  surface  soil  are  now 
so  many  and  so  well  adapted  to  the  work  that  the  gardener 
should  find  special  satisfaction  in  handling  them. 

If  the  soil  is  a  stiff  clay,  it  is  often  advisable  to  plow  it  or  dig 
it  in  the  fall,  allowing  it  to  lie  rough  and  loose  all  winter,  so  that 
the  weathering  may  pulverize  and  slake  it.     If  the  clay  is  very 


THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  LAND  93 

tenacious,  it  may  be  necessary  to  throw  leafmold  or  litter 
over  the  surface  before  the  spading  is  done,  to  prevent  the  soil 
from  running  together  or  cementing  before  spring.  With 
mellow  and  loamy  lands,  however,  it  is  ordinarily  best  to  leave 
the  preparation  of  the  surface  until  spring. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  surface,  the  ordinary  hand  tools, 
or  spades  and  shovels,  may  be  used.  If,  however,  the  soil  is 
mellow,  a  fork  is  a  better  tool  than  a  spade,  from  the  fact  that 
it  does  not  slice  the  soil,  but  tends  to  break  it  up  into  smaller 
and  more  irregular  masses.  The  ordinary  spading- 
fork,  with  strong  flat  tines,  is  a  most  serviceable 
tool;  a  spading-fork  for  soft  ground  may  be  made 
from  an  old  manure  fork  by  cutting  down  the  tines, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  84. 

It  is  important  that  the  soil  should  not  be  sticky 
when  it  is  prepared,  as  it  is  likely  to  become  hard 
and  baked  and  the  physical  condition  be  greatly 
injured.  However,  land  that  is  too  wet  for  the  84.  improvis- 
reception  of  seeds  may  still  be  thrown  up  loose  |"g  ^  '^p^'^' 
with  a  spade  or  fork  and  allowed  to  dry,  and  after  '"^"  °^ 
two  or  three  days  the  surface  preparation  may  be  completed 
with  the  hoe  and  the  rake.  In  ordinary  soils  the  hoe  is  the 
tool  to  follow  the  spading-fork  or  the  spade,  but  for  the  final 
preparation  of  the  surface  a  steel  garden-rake  is  the  ideal 
implement. 

In  areas,  large  enough  to  admit  horse  tools,  the  land  can  be 
fitted  more  economically  by  means  of  the  various  types  of 
plows,  harrows,  and  cultivators  that  are  to  be  had  of  any  dealer 
in  agricultural  implements.  Figure  85  shows  various  types  of 
model  surface  plows.  The  one  shown  at  the  upper  left-hand 
is  considered  by  Roberts,  in  his  '' Fertility  of  the  Land,"  to  be 
the  ideal  general-purpose  plow,  as  respects  shape  and  method 
of  construction. 

The  type  of  machine  to  be  used  must  be  determined  wholly 


94  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

by  the  character  of  the  land  and  the  purposes  for  which  it  is 
to  be  fitted.  Lands  that  are  hard  and  cloddy  may  be  reduced 
by  the  use  of  the  disk  or  Acme  harrows,  shown  in  Fig.  86;  but 


Excellent  types  of  surface  plows. 


those  that  are  friable  and  mellow  may  not  need  such  heavy 
and  vigorous  tools.     On  these  mellower  lands,  the  spring-tooth 


86.   Disk  and  Acme  harrows,  for  the  first  working  of  hard  or  cloddy  land. 

harrow,  types  of  which  are  shown  in  Fig.  87,  may  follow  the 
plow.  On  very  hard  lands,  these  spring-tooth  harrows  may 
follow  the  disk  and  Acme  types.     The  final  preparation  of  the 


THE  HANDLING    OF    THE  LAND 


95 


land  is  accomplished  by  light  implements  of  the  pattern  shown 
in  Fig.  88.  These  spike-tooth  smoothing-harrows  do  for  the 
field  what  the  hand-rake 
does  for  the  garden-bed. 

If  it  is  desired  to  put 
a  very  fine  finish  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground  by 
means  of  horse  tools,  im- 
plements like  the  Breed 
or  Wiard  weeder  may  be 
used.  These  are  con- 
structed on  the  principle 
of  a  spring-tooth  horse 
hay-rake,  and  are  most 
excellent,  not  only  for 
fitting  loose  land  for  or- 
dinary seeding,  but  also 
for  subsequent  tillage. 

In  areas  that  cannot 
be  entered  with  a  team,  ^^-  Spring-tooth  harrows. 

various  one-horse  implements  may  do  the  work  that  is  accom- 
plished by  heavier  tools  in  the  field.  The  spring-tooth  culti- 
vator, shown  at  the  right  in  Fig.  89,  may  do  the  kind  of  work 

that  the  spring-tooth 
harrows  are  expected  to 
do  on  larger  areas;  and 
various  adjustable  spike- 
tooth  cultivators,  two  of 
which  are  shown  in  Fig. 
89,  are  useful  for  putting 
a  finish  on  the  land.  These  tools  are  also  available  for  the  till- 
ing of  the  surface  when  crops  are  growing.  The  spring-tooth 
cultivator  is  a  most  useful  tool  for  cultivating  raspberries  and 
blackberries,  and  other  strong-rooted  crops. 


88.   Spike-tooth  harrow. 


96 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


89.   Spike-tooth  and  spring-tooth  cultivators. 

For  still  smaller  areas,  in  which  horses  cannot  be  used  and 
which  are  still  too  large  for  tilling  wholly  by  means  of  hoes 


90.   Good  type  of 
wheel-hoe. 


91.    A  single-blade 
wheel-hoe. 


92.    Double  wheel- 
hoe,  useful  in 
straddling  the  row. 


and  rakes,  various  types  of  wheel-hoes  may  be  used.     These 
implements  are  now  made  in  great  variety  of  patterns,  to 


THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  LAND  97 

suit  any  taste  and  almost  any  kind  of  tillage.  For  the  best 
results,  it  is  essential  that  the  wheel  should  be  large  and  with  a 
broad  tire,  that  it  may  override  obstacles.  Figure  90  shows  an 
excellent  type  of  wheel-hoe  with  five  blades,  and  Fig.  91  shows 
one  with  a  single  blade  and  that  may  be  used  in  very  narrow 
rows.  Two-wheeled  hoes  (Fig.  92)  are  often  used,  particularly 
when  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  implement  very  steady,  and 
the  wheels  may  straddle  the  rows  of  low  plants.  Many  of  these 
wheel-hoes  are  provided  with  various  shapes  of  blades,  so  that 
the  implement  may  be  adjusted  to  many  kinds  of  work.  Nearly 
all  the  weeding  of  beds  of  onions  and  like  plants  can  be  done 
by  means  of  these  wheel-hoes,  if  the  ground  is  well  prepared  in 
the  beginning;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  they  are  of 
comparatively  small  use  on  very  hard  and  cloddy  and  stony 
lands. 

The  saving  of  moisture. 

The  garden  must  have  a  hberal  supply  of  moisture.  The 
first  effort  toward  securing  this  supply  should  be  the  saving 
of  the  rainfall  water. 

Proper  preparation  and  tillage  put  the  land  in  such  condition 
that  it  holds  the  water  of  rainfall.  Land  that  is  very  hard  and 
compact  may  shed  the  rainfall,  particularly  if  it  is  sloping  and 
if  the  surface  is  bare  of  vegetation.  If  the  hard-pan  is  near  the 
surface,  the  land  cannot  hold  much  water,  and  any  ordinary 
rainfall  may  fill  it  so  full  that  it  overflows,  or  puddles  stand  on 
the  surface.  On  land  in  good  tilth,  the  water  of  rainfall  sinks 
away,  and  is  not  visible  as  free  water. 

As  soon  as  the  moisture  begins  to  pass  from  the  superin- 
cumbent atmosphere,  evaporation  begins  from  the  surface  of 
the  land.  Any  body  interposed  between  the  land  and  the  air 
checks  this  evaporation;  this  is  why  there  is  moisture  under- 
neath a  board.  It  is  impracticable,  however,  to  floor  over  the 
garden  with  boards,  but  any  covering  will  have  similar  effect, 


98  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

but  in  different  degree.  A  covering  of  sawdust  or  leaves  or 
dry  ashes  will  prevent  the  loss  of  moisture.  So  will  a  cover' 
ing  of  dry  earth.  Now,  inasmuch  as  the  land  is  already  cov- 
ered with  earth,  it  only  remains  to  loosen  up  a  layer  or  stratum 
on  top  in  order  to  secure  the  mulch. 

All  this  is  only  a  roundabout  way  of  saying  that  frequent 
shallow  surface  tillage  conserves  moisture.  The  comparatively 
dry  and  loose  mulch  breaks  up  the  capillary  connection  be- 
tween the  surface  soil  and  the  under  soil,  and  while  the  mulch 
itself  may  be  useless  as  a  foraging  ground  for  roots,  it  more  than 
pays  its  keep  by  its  preventing  of  the  loss  of  moisture;  and  its 
own  soluble  plant-foods  are  washed  down  into  the  lower  soil  by 
the  rains. 

As  often  as  the  surface  becomes  compact,  the  mulch  should 
be  renewed  or  repaired  by  the  use  of  the  rake  or  cultivator  or 
harrow.  Persons  are  deceived  by  supposing  that  so  long  as 
the  surface  remains  moist,  the  land  is  in  the  best  possible  condi- 
tion; a  moist  surface  may  mean  that  water  is  rapidly  passing 
off  into  the  atmosphere.  A  dry  surface  may  mean  that  less 
evaporation  is  taking  place,  and  there  may  be  moister  earth 
beneath  it;  and  moisture  is  needed  below  the  surface  rather 
than  on  top.  A  finely  raked  bed  is  dry  on  top;  but  the  foot- 
prints of  the  cat  remain  moist,  for  the  animal  packed  the  soil 
wherever  it  stepped  and  a  capillary  connection  was  established 
with  the  water  reservoir  beneath.  Gardeners  advise  firming  the 
earth  over  newly  planted  seeds  to  hasten  germination.  This  is 
essential  in  dry  times;  but  what  we  gain  in  hastening  germina- 
tion we  lose  in  the  more  rapid  evaporation  of  moisture.  The 
lesson  is  that  we  should  loosen  the  soil  as  soon  as  the  seeds  have 
germinated,  to  reduce  evaporation  to  the  minimum.  Large 
seeds,  as  beans  and  peas,  may  be  planted  deep  and  have  the 
earth  firmed  about  them,  and  then  the  rake  may  be  applied  to 
the  surface  to  stop  the  rise  of  moisture  before  it  reaches  the  air. 

Two  illustrations,  adapted  from  Roberts's  "Fertility,"  show 


THE  HANDLING   OF   THE  LAND 


99 


good  and  poor  preparation  of  the  land.  Figure  93  is  a  section  of 
land  twelve  inches  deep.  The  under  soil  has  been  finely  broken 
and  pulverized  and  then  compacted.  It  is  mellow  but  firm, 
and  is  an  excellent  water  reservoir.  Three  inches  of  the  surface 
is  a  mulch  of  loose  and  dry  earth.     Figure  94  shows  an  earth- 


93.    To  illustrate  good  preparation  of  ground. 

mulch,  but  it  is  too  shallow;  and  the  under  soil  is  so  open  and 
cloddy  that  the  water  runs  through  it. 

When  the  land  is  once  properly  prepared,  the  soil-mulch  is 
maintained  by  surface-working  tools.  In  field  practice,  these 
tools  are  harrows  and  horse  cultivators  of  various  kinds;  in 
home  garden  practice  they  are  wheel-hoes,  rakes,  and  many 
patterns  of  hand  hoes  and  scarifiers,  with  finger-weeders  and 
other  small  implements  for  work  directly  among  the  plants. 


100 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


A  garden  soil  is  not  in  good  condition  when  it  is  hard  and 
crusted  on  top.  The  crust  may  be  the  cause  of  wasting  water, 
it  keeps  out  the  air,  and  in  general  it  is  an  uncongenial  physical 
condition;  but  its  evaporation  of  water  is  probably  its  chief 
defect.     Instead  of  pouring  water  on  the  land,  therefore,  we 


94.   To  illustrate  poor  preparation  of  ground. 

first  attempt  to  keep  the  moisture  in  the  land.  If,  however, 
the  soil  becomes  so  dry  in  spite  of  you  that  the  plants  do  not 
thrive,  then  water  the  bed.  Do  not  sprinkle  it,  but  water  it. 
Wet  it  clear  through  at  evening.  Then  in  the  morning,  when 
the  earth  begins  to  dry,  loosen  the  surface  again  to  keep  the 
water  from  getting  away.  Sprinkling  the  plants  every  day  or 
two  is  one  of  the  surest  ways  of  spoihng  them.  We  may  water 
the  ground  with  a  garden-rake. 


THE  HANDLING   OF   THE  LAND  101 


Hand  tools  for  weeding  and  subsequent  tillage  and  other  hand 
work. 

Any  of  the  cultivators  and  wheel-hoes  are  as  useful  for  the 
subsequent  tilling  of  the  crop  as  for  the  initial  preparation  of 
the  land,  but  there  are  other  tools  also  that  greatly  facilitate 
the  keeping  of  the  plantation  in  order.  Yet  wholly  aside  from 
the  value  of  a  tool  as  an  implement  of  tillage  and  as  a  weapon 
for  the  pursuit  of  weeds,  is  its  merit  merely  as  a  shapely  and 
interesting  instrument.  A  man  will  take  infinite  pains  to  choose 
a  gun  or  a  fishing-rod  to  his  hking,  and  a  woman  gives  her  best 
attention  to  the  selecting  of  an  umbrella;  but  a  hoe  is  only 
a  hoe  and  a  rake  only  a  rake.  If  one  puts  his  personal  choice 
into  the  securing  of  plants  for  a  garden,  so  should  he  discrimi- 
nate in  the  choice  of  hand  tools,  to  secure  those  that  are  light, 
trim,  well  made,  and  precisely  adapted  to  the  work  to  be  ac- 
comphshed.  A  case  of  neat  garden  tools  ought  to  be  a  great 
joy  to  a  joyful  gardener.  So  I  am  wiUing  to  enlarge  on  the 
subject  of  hoes  and  their  kind. 

The  hoe. 

The    common    rectangular-bladed    hoe    is    so    thoroughly 
established  in  the  popular  mind  that  it  is  very  difficult  to 
introduce  new  patterns,  even  though 
they  may  be  intrinsically  superior.     As 
a  general-purpose  tool,  it  is  no  doubt 
true  that  a  common  hoe  is  better  than 
any  of  its  modifications,  but  there  are 
various  patterns  of  hoe-blades  that  are     95.  Useful  forms  of  hoe- 
greatly  superior  for  special  uses,  and  blades. 
which  ought  to  appeal  to  any  quiet  soul  who  loves  a  garden. 

The  great  width  of  the  common  blade  does  not  admit  of  its 
being  used  in  very  narrow  rows  or  very  close  to  delicate  plants, 
and  it  does  not  allow  of  the  deep  stirring  of  the  soil  in  narrow 


102 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


spaces.     It  is  also  difficult  to  enter  hard  ground  with  such  a 
broad  face.    Various  pointed  blades  have  been  introduced  from 


96.   A  stack  of  gardening  weapons,  comprising  some  of  Tarryer's 
weeding  spuds  and  thimbles. 

time  to  time,  and  most  of  them  have  merit.     Some  persons 
prefer  two  points  to  the  hoe,  as  shown  in  Marvin's  blades,  in 


THE  HANDLING   OF   THE  LAND 


103 


Fig.  95.  These  interesting  shapes  represent  the  suggestions  of 
gardeners  who  will  not  be  bound  by  what  the  market  affords, 
but  who  have  blades  cut  and  fitted  for  their  own  satisfaction. 

Persons  who  followed  the  entertaining  writings  of  one  who 
called  himself  Mr.  A.  B.  Tarryer,  in  ''American  Garden,"  a 
few  years  back,  will  recall  the  great  variety  of  implements  that 
he  advised  for  the  purpose  of  extirpating  his  hereditary  foes, 
the  weeds.  A  variety  of  these  blades  and  tools  is  shown  in 
Figs.  96  and  97.  I  shall  let 
Mr.  Tarryer  tell  his  story  at 
some  length  in  order  to  lead 
my  reader  painlessly  into  a  new 
field  of  gardening  pleasures. 

Mr. Tarryer  contends  that  the 
wheel-hoe  is  much  too  clumsy 
an  affair  to  allow  of  the  pursuit 
of  an  individual  weed.  While 
the  operator  is  busy  adjusting 
his  machine  and  manipulating 
it  about  the  corners  of  the 
garden,  the  quack-grass  has 
escaped  over  the  fence  or  has 
gone  to  seed  at  the  other  end  of  the  plantation.  He  devised 
an  expeditious  tool  for  each  little  work  to  be  performed 
on  the  garden,  —  for  hard  ground  and  soft,  for  old  weeds  and 
young  (one  of  his  implements  was  denominated  ''infant- 
damnation"). 

"Scores  of  times  during  the  season,"  Mr.  Tarryer  writes, 
"the  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  one  has  to  enjoy  in  the  flower, 
fruit,  and  vegetable  garden  —  and  that  would  suffice  for  the 
needful  weeding  with  the  hoes  we  are  celebrating  —  would  be 
lost  in  harnessing  horses  or  adjusting  and  oiling  squeaky 
wheel-hoes,  even  if  everybody  had  them.  The  'American 
Garden'  is  not  big  enough,  nor  my  patience  long  enough,  to 


97. 


Some  of  the  details  of  the  Tarryer 
tools. 


104  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

give  more  than  an  inkling  of  the  unspeakable  merits  of  these 
weapons  of  society  and  civihzation.  When  Mrs.  Tarryer  was 
showing  twelve  or  fifteen  acres  of  garden  with  never  a  weed  to 
be  seen,  she  valued  her  dozen  or  more  of  these  light  implements 
at  five  or  ten  dollars  daily;  whether  they  were  in  actual  use  or 
adorning  the  front  hall,  like  a  hunter's  or  angler's  furniture, 
made  no  difference.  But  where  are  these  millennial  tools 
made  and  sold?  Nowhere.  They  are  as  unknown  as  the 
Bible  was  in  the  dark  ages,  and  we  must  give  a  few  hints  to- 
wards manufacturing  them. 

''First,  about  the  handles.  The  ordinary  dealer  or  workman 
may  say  these  knobs  can  be  formed  on  any  handles  by  winding 
them  with  leather;  but  just  fancy  a  young  maiden  setting  up 
her  hoe  meditatively  and  resting  her  hands  and  chin  upon  an 
old  leather  knob  to  reflect  upon  something  that  has  been  said 
to  her  in  the  garden,  and  we  shall  perceive  that  a  knob  by  some 
other  name  would  smell  far  sweeter.  Moreover,  trees  grow 
large  enough  at  the  butt  to  furnish  all  the  knobs  we  want  — 
even  for  broom-sticks  —  though  sawyers,  turners,  dealers, 
and  the  public  seem  not  to  be  aware  of  it;  yet  it  must  be  con- 
fessed we  are  so  far  gone  in  depravity  that  there  will  be  trouble 
in  getting  those  handles.  .  .  . 

''In  a  broadcast  prayer  of  this  pubhc  nature,  absolute  speci- 
fications would  not  be  pohte.  Black  walnut  and  butternut 
are  fragrant  as  well  as  beautiful  timber.  Cherry  is  stiff,  heavy, 
durable,  and,  Hke  maple,  takes  a  slippery  poHsh.  For  fine, 
light  handles,  that  the  palm  will  stick  to,  butt  cuts  of  poplar 
or  Cottonwood  cannot  be  excelled,  yet  straight-grained  ash  will 
bear  more  careless  usage. 

"The  handles  of  Mrs.  Tarryer's  hoes  are  never  perfectly 
straight.  All  the  bayonet  class  bend  downward  in  use  half 
an  inch  or  more;  all  the  thrust-hoe  handles  bend  up  in  a 
regular  curve  (like  a  fiddle-bow  turned  over)  two  or  three 
inches.     Unless  they  are  hung  right,  these  hoes  are  very  awk- 


THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  LAND 


105 


ward  things.  When  perfectly  fit  for  one,  they  may  not  fit 
another;  that  is,  a  tall,  keen-sighted  person  cannot  use  the 
hoe  that  is  just  fit  for  a  very  short  one.  .  .  .  Curves  in  the 
handles  throw  centers  of  gravity 
where  they  belong.  Good  timber 
generally  warps  in  a  handle  about 
right,  only  implement  makers  and 


99.  Home-made 
scarifier. 


babes  in  weeding  may  not  know  when  it  is 
made  fast  right  side  up  in  the  hoe. 

''There  are  plenty  of  thrust-hoes  in  market, 
such  as  they  are.  Some  have  malleable  iron 
sockets  and  bows  —  heavier  to  the  buyer  and 
cheaper  to  the  dealer  —  instead  of  wrought- 
iron  and  steel,  such  as  is  required  for  true 
worth." 

Scarifiers. 


100.    Home-made 
scarifier  or  scraper. 


For   many  purposes,  tools  that  scrape  or 
scarify  the  surface  are  preferable  to  hoes  that 
dig  up  the  ground.     Weeds  may  be  kept  down  by  cutting 
them  off,  as  in  walks  and  often  in  flower-beds,  rather  than 


106 


MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 


by  rooting  them  out.  Figure  98  shows  such  a 
tool,  and  a  home-made  implement  answering  the 
same  purpose  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  99.  This  latter 
tool  is  easily  made  from  strong  band-iron.  An- 
other type  is  suggested  in  Fig.  100,  representing 
a  slicing-hoe  made  by  fastening  a 


sheet  of  good  metal  to  the  tines  of 
a  broken  fork.     The  kind  chiefly  in 
the  market  is  shown  in  Fig.  101. 


101.  The  com 
mon  scarifier, 


Hand-weeders. 

For  small  beds  of  flowers  or  vegetables,  hand- 
weeders  of  various  patterns  are  essential  to  easy 


103.   Ahand- 
weeder. 


104.   A  finger-weeder. 


and  efficient  work.     One  of  the  best  patterns, 
with  long  and  short  handles,  is  shown  in  Fig. 

102.     Another  style,  that  may  be    J^a-wSdets. 
made  at  home  of  hoop-iron,  is  drawn 
in   Fig.   103.     A  finger-weeder   is  illustrated   in 
Fig.  104.     In  Fig.  105  a  common  form  is  shown. 
Many  patterns  of  hand-weeders  are  in  the  mar- 
,^^    ,        „     ket,  and  other  forms  will  suggest  themselves  to 

105.   A  small  '  °° 

hand-weeder.      the  Operator. 

Trowels  and  their  kind. 

Small  hand-tools  for  digging,  as  trowels,  dibbers,  and  spuds, 
may  be  had  of  dealers.  In  buying  a  trowel  it  is  economy  to 
pay  an  extra  price  and  secure  a  steel  blade  with  a  strong  shank 
that  runs  through  the  entire  length  of  the  handle.     One  of  these 


THE  HANDLING    OF    THE  LAND 


107 


tools  will  last  several  years  and  may  he  used  in  hard 
ground,  but  the  cheap  trowels  are  generally  hardly 
worth  the  buying.     A  solid  wrought-iron  trowel  all  in 


106.  Long- 
handled 
trowel. 


107. 


Improvised 
trowel. 


108.   Weed- 
spud. 


109.  A  good 
weed-spud. 


one  piece  is  also  manufactured,  and  is  the  most 
durable  pattern.  A  steel  trowel  may  be  secured 
to  a  long  handle;  or  the  blade  of  a  broken  trowel 
may  be  utilized  in  the  same  way  (Fig.  106).  A 
very  good  trowel  may  also  be  made  from 
a  discarded  blade  of  a  mowing  machine 
(Fig.  107),  and  it  answers  the  purpose  of  a 
hand-weeder. 

Weed-spuds  are  shown  in  Figs.  108  to  111. 
The  first   is   particularly  serviceable  in  cutting 
docks  and  other  strong  weeds  from  lawns  and 
pastures.     It  is  provided  with  a  brace  to  allow 
it  to  be  thrust  into  the  ground  with  the  foot.     It 
is  seldom  necessary  to  dig  out  perennial  weeds  to 
the  tips  of  their  deep  roots,  if  the  crown  is  severed 
a  short  distance  below  the  surface. 


110.   Weed-cutter. 


111.  A  weed- 
spud  that  lifts 
the  weed. 


108 


MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 


112.    Hand-roller. 


Rollers. 

It  is  often  essential  that  the  land  be  compacted  after  it  has 
been  spaded  or  hoed,  and  some  kind  of  hand-roller  is  then  use- 
ful. Very  efficient  iron  rollers  are  in 
the  market,  but  a  good  one  can  be 
made  from  a  hard  chestnut  or  oak  log, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  112.  (It  should  be 
remembered  that  when  the  surface  is 
hard  and  compact,  water  escapes  from 
it  rapidly,  and  plants  may  suffer  for 
moisture  on  arrival  of  warm  weather.) 
The  roller  is  useful  in  two  ways  —  to 
compact  the  under-surface,  in  which  case  the  surface  should  be 
again  loosened  as  soon  as  the  rolling  is  done;  and  to  firm  the 
earth  about  seeds  (page 
98)  or  the  roots  of  newly 
set  plants. 

Markers. 

A  marker  may  often 

be   combined  with    the 

roller  to  good  advantage, 

as  in  Fig.    113.     Ropes 

are  secured  about  the  cylinder  at  proper  intervals,  and  these 

mark  the  rows.  Knots 
may  be  placed  in  the 
ropes    to     indicate     the 


113.   Roller  and  marker. 


114.   Roller  and  marker. 


115.   Marking-stick. 


THE  HANDLING    OF    THE  LAND 


109 


places  where  plants  are  to  be  set  or  seeds  dropped.  An  ex- 
tension of  the  same  idea  is  seen  in  Fig.  114,  which  shows  iron 
or  wooden  pegs  that  make  holes  in  which  very  small  plants 


116,   Tool  for  spacing  plants.        117.   Barrow  rigged  with  a  marker. 

may  be  set.     An  L-shaped  rod  projects  at  one  side  to  mark 
the  place  of  the  next  row. 

In  most  cases  the  best  and  most  expeditious  method  of  mark- 


118.    Hand  sled-marker. 


ing  out  the  garden  is  by  the  use  of  the  garden  line,  which  is 
secured  to  a  reel  (Fig.  96),  but  various  other  devices  are  often 
useful.  For  very  small  beds,  drills  or  furrows  may  be  made 
by  a  simple  marking-stick  (Fig.  115).   A  handy  marker  is  shown 


110 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


in  Fig.  116.  A  marker  can  be  rigged  to  a  wheel-barrow,  as  in 
Fig.  117.     A  rod  is  secured  underneath  the  front  truss,  and 

from  its  end  an  adjust- 
able trailer,  B,  is  hung. 
The  wheel  of  the  bar- 
row marks  the  row,  and 
the  trailer  indicates  the 
place  of  the  next  row, 
thereby  keeping  the 
rows  parallel.  A  hand 
sled-marker  is  shown 
in  Fig.  118,  and  a  simi- 

119.   Trailing  sled-marker.  ^^^   ^^^j^^   ^^^   ^^   gg_ 

cured  to  the  frame  of  a  sulky  cultivator  (Fig.  119)  or  other 
wheel  tool.  A  good  adjustable  sled-marker  is  outlined  in  Fig. 
120. 

Enriching  the  land. 

Two  problems  are  involved  in  the  fertilizing  of  the  land: 
the  direct  addition  of  plant-food,  and  the  improvement  of  the 
physical  structure  of 
the  soil.  The  latter 
office  is  often  the  more 
important. 

Lands  that,  on  the 
one  hand,  are  very 
hard  and  solid,  with  a 
tendency  to  bake,  and, 
on  the  other,  that  are 
loose  and  leachy,  are 
very  greatly  benefited 


120.   Adjustable  sled-marker. 


by  the  addition  of  organic  matter.  When  this  organic  matter — 
as  animal  and  plant  remains  —  decays  and  becomes  thoroughly 
incorporated  with  the  soil,  it  forms  what  is  called  humus.     The 


&0 

^^m^W"    '''^'  /*;v'''     '  '"'   '     '      ^^  V 

1  ■  --..^MMM^         ^^^     1 

THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  LAND  111 

addition  of  this  humus  makes  the  land  mellow,  friable,  retentive 
of  moisture,  and  promotes  the  general  chemical  activities  of  the 
soil.  It  also  puts  the  soil  in  the  best  physical  condition  for  the 
comfort  and  well-being  of  the  plants.  Very  many  of  the  lands 
that  are  said  to  be  exhausted  of  plant-food  still  contain  enough 
potash,  phosphoric  acid,  and  lime,  and  other  fertilizing  elements, 
to  produce  good  crops;  but  they  have  been  greatly  injured  in 
their  physical  condition  by  long-continued  cropping,  injudicious 
tillage,  and  the  withholding  of  vegetable  matter.  A  part  of  the 
marked  results  secured  from  the  plowing  under  of  clover  is  due 
to  the  incorporation  of  vegetable  matter,  wholly  aside  from  the 
addition  of  fertilizing  material ;  and  this  is  emphatically  true 
of  clover  because  its  deep-growing  roots  penetrate  and  break 
up  the  subsoil. 

Muck  and  leafmold  are  often  very  useful  in  ameliorating 
either  very  hard  or  very  loose  lands.  Excellent  humous  mate- 
rial may  be  constantly  at  hand  if  the  leaves,  garden  refuse,  and 
some  of  the  manure  are  piled  and  composted  (p.  114).  If  the 
pile  is  turned  several  times  a  year,  the  material  becomes  fine 
and  uniform  in  texture. 

The  various  questions  associated  with  the  fertihzing  of  the 
land  are  too  large  to  be  considered  in  detail  here.  Persons  who 
desire  to  familiarize  themselves  with  the  subject  should  con- 
sult recent  books.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that,  as  a  rule, 
most  lands  contain  all  the  elements  of  plant-food  in  sufficient 
quantities  except  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  and  nitrogen.  In 
many  cases,  lime  is  very  beneficial  to  land,  usually  because  it 
corrects  acidity  and  has  a  mechanical  effect  in  pulverizing  and 
flocculating  clay  and  in  cementing  sands. 

The  chief  sources  of  commercial  potash  are  muriate  of  potash, 
sulfate  of  potash,  and  wood  ashes.  For  general  purposes,  the 
muriate  of  potash  is  now  recommended,  because  it  is  com- 
paratively cheap  and  the  composition  is  uniform.  A  normal 
application  of  muriate  of  potash  is  200  to  300  pounds  to  the 


112  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

acre ;  but  on  some  lands,  where  the  greatest  results  are  demanded, 
sometimes  as  much  as  twice  this  application  may  be  made. 

Phosphoric  acid  is  got  in  dissolved  South  Carolina  and  Flor- 
ida rock  and  in  various  bone  preparations.  These  materials 
are  applied  at  the  rate  of  200  to  400  pounds  to  the  acre. 

Commercial  nitrogen  is  secured  chiefly  in  the  form  of  animal 
refuse,  as  blood  and  tankage,  and  in  nitrate  of  soda.  It  is 
more  likely  to  be  lost  by  leaching  through  the  land  than  the 
mineral  substances  are,  especially  if  the  land  lacks  humus. 
Nitrate  of  soda  is  very  soluble,  and  should  be  applied  in  small 
quantities  at  intervals.  Nitrogen,  being  the  element  which  is 
mostly  conducive  to  vegetative  growth,  tends  to  delay  the 
season  of  maturity  if  applied  heavily  or  late  in  the  season. 
From  100  to  300  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  may  be  applied 
to  the  acre,  but  it  is  ordinarily  better  to  make  two  or  three 
applications  at  intervals  of  three  to  six  weeks.  Fertilizing 
materials  may  be  applied  either  in  fall  or  spring;  but  in  the 
case  of  nitrate  of  soda  it  is  usuallj^  better  not  to  apply  in  the  fall 
unless  the  land  has  plenty  of  humus  to  prevent  leaching,  or  on 
plants  that  start  very  early  in  the  spring. 

FertiUzing  material  is  sown  broadcast,  or  it  may  be  scattered 
lightly  in  furrows  underneath  the  seeds,  and  then  covered  with 
earth.  If  sown  broadcast,  it  may  be  applied  either  after  the 
seeds  are  sown  or  before.  It  is  usually  better  to  apply  it  be- 
fore, for  although  the  rains  carry  it  down,  nevertheless  the 
upward  movement  of  water  during  the  dry  weather  of  the 
summer  tends  to  bring  it  back  to  the  surface.  It  is  important 
that  large  lumps  of  fertilizer,  especially  muriate  of  potash  and 
nitrate  of  soda,  do  not  fall  near  the  crowns  of  the  plants; 
otherwise  the  plants  may  be  seriously  injured.  It  is  a  general 
principle,  also,  that  it  is  best  to  use  more  sparingly  of  fertilizers 
than  of  tillage.  The  tendency  is  to  make  fertilizers  do  penance 
for  the  sins  of  neglect,  but  the  results  do  not  often  meet  one's 
expectations. 


THE  HANDLING   OF   THE  LAND  113 

If  one  has  only  a  small  garden  or  a  home  yard,  it  ordinarily 
will  not  pay  him  to  buy  the  chemicals  separately,  as  sug- 
gested above,  but  he  may  purchase  a  complete  fertilizer  that 
is  sold  under  a  trademark  or  brand,  and  has  a  guaranteed 
analysis.  If  one  is  raising  plants  chiefly  for  their  foliage,  as 
rhubarb  and  ornamental  bushes,  he  should  choose  a  fertilizer 
comparatively  rich  in  nitrogen;  but  if  he  desires  chiefly  fruit 
and  flowers,  the  mineral  elements,  as  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid,  should  usually  be  high.  If  one  uses  the  chemicals,  it  is 
not  necessary  that  they  be  mixed  before  application;  in  fact, 
it  is  usually  better  not  to  mix  them,  because  some  plants  and 
some  soils  need  more  of  one  element  than  of  another.  Just 
what  materials,  and  how  much,  different  soils  and  plants  re- 
quire must  be  determined  by  the  grower  himself  by  obser- 
vation and  experiment;  and  it  is  one  of  the  satisfactions  of 
gardening  to  arrive  at  discrimination  in  such  matters. 

Muriate  of  potash  costs  $40  and  upwards  per  ton,  sulfate 
about  $48,  dissolved  boneblack  about  $24,  ground  bone  about 
$30,  kainit  about  $13,  and  nitrate  of  soda  about  2}/i  cents  per 
pound.  These  prices  vary,  of  course,  with  the  composition  or 
mechanical  condition  of  materials,  and  with  the  state  of  the 
market.  The  average  composition  of  unleached  wood  ashes 
in  the  market  is  about  as  follows:  Potash,  5.2  per  cent;  phos- 
phoric acid,  1.70  per  cent;  lime,  34  per  cent;  magnesia,  3.40 
per  cent.  The  average  composition  of  kainit  is  13.54  per 
cent  potash,  1.15  per  cent  lime. 

The  fact  that  the  soil  itself  is  the  greatest  storehouse  of  plant- 
food  is  shown  by  the  following  average  of  thirty-five  analyses 
of  the  total  content  of  the  first  eight  inches  of  surface  soils, 
per  acre:  3521  pounds  of  nitrogen,  4400  pounds  of  phosphoric 
acid,  19,836  pounds  of  potash.  Much  of  this  is  unavailable, 
but  good  tillage,  green-manuring,  and  proper  management 
tend  to  unlock  it  and  at  the  same  time  to  save  it  from  waste. 

Every  careful  gardener  will  take  satisfaction  in  saving  leaves 


114 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


and  trimmings  and  stable  refuse  and  making  compost  of  it 
to  supplement  the  native  supplies  in  the  soil.  Some  out-of-the- 
way  corner  will  be  found  for  a  permanent  pile,  with  room  for 
piling  it  over  from  time  to  time.  The  pile  will  be  screened  by 
his  garden  planting.  (Figure  121  suggests  a  useful  cart  for  col- 
lecting such  materials.)  He  will  also  save  the  power  of  his 
land  by  changing  his  crops  to  other 
parts  of  the  garden,  year  by  year,  not 
growing  his  China  asters  or  his  snap- 
dragons or  his  potatoes  or  strawberries 
continuously  on  the  same  area;  and 
thus,  also,  will  his  garden  have  a  new 
face  every  year. 

Lest  the  reader  may  get  the  idea 
that  there  is  no  limit  to  be  placed  on 
the  enriching  of  the  soil,  I  will  caution  him  at  the  end  of  my 
discussion  that  he  may  easily  make  the  place  so  rich  that 
some  plants  will  overgrow  and  will  not  come  into  flower- 
ing or  fruiting  before  frost,  and  flowers  may  lack  brilliancy. 
On  very  rich  land,  scarlet  sage  will  grow  to  great  size  but 
will  not  bloom  in  the  northern  season;  sweet  peas  will  run  to 
vine;  gaillardias  and  some  other  plants  will  break  down; 
tomatoes  and  melons  and  peppers  may  be  so  late  that  the 
fruit  will  not  ripen.  Only  experience  and  good  judgment  will 
safeguard  the  gardener  as  to  how  far  he  should  or  should 
not  go. 


121.  A  good  cart  for  collect- 
ing leaves  and  other  ma- 
terials. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE   HANDLING   OF   THE   PLANTS 

There  is  a  knack  in  the  successful  handling  of  plants  that 
it  is  impossible  to  describe  in  print.  All  persons  can  improve 
their  practice  through  dihgent  reading  of  useful  gardening  lit- 
erature, but  no  amount  of  reading  and  advice  will  make  a  good 
gardener  of  a  person  who  does  not  love  to  dig  in  a  garden  or 
who  does  not  have  a  care  for  plants  just  because  they  are  plants. 

To  grow  a  plant  well,  one  must  learn  its  natural  habits. 
Some  persons  learn  this  as  if  by  intuition,  acquiring  the  knowl- 
edge from  close  discrimination  of  the  behavior  of  the  plant. 
Often  they  are  themselves  unconscious  of  this  knack  of  knowing 
what  will  make  the  plant  to  thrive;  but  it  is  not  at  all  necessary 
to  have  such  an  intuitive  judgment  to  enable  one  to  be  even 
more  than  a  fairly  good  gardener.  Diligent  attention  to  the 
plant's  habits  and  requirements,  and  a  real  regard  for  the  plant's 
welfare,  will  make  any  person  a  successful  plant-grower. 

Some  of  the  things  that  a  person  should  know  about  any 
plant  he  would  grow  are  these:  — 

Whether  the  plant  matures  in  the  first,  second,  third,  or 
subsequent  years;  and  when  it  naturally  begins  to  fail. 

The  time  of  the  year  or  season  in  which  it  normally  grows, 
blooms,  or  fruits;  and  whether  it  can  be  forced  at  other 
seasons. 

Whether  it  prefers  a  situation  dry  or  moist  or  wet,  hot  or 
cool,  sunny  or  shady. 

Its  preferences  as  to  soil,  whether  very  rich  or  only  moder- 
ately rich,  sand  or  loam,  or  peat  or  clay. 

Its  hardiness  as  to  frost,  wind,  drought,  heat. 

116 


116  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Whether  it  has  any  special  requirements  as  to  germina- 
tion, and  whether  it  transplants  well. 

Whether  it  is  specially  liable  to  attack  by  insects  or 
disease. 

Whether  it  has  a  special  inability  to  grow  two  years  in 
succession  on  the  same  land. 

Having  suited  the  situation  to  the  plant,  and  having  pre- 
pared the  ground  well  and  made  a  resolution  to  keep  it  well, 
special  attention  must  be  given  to  such  matters  as  these:  — 

Guarding  from  all  insects  and  diseases;  and  also  from  cats 

and  chickens  and  dogs;    and  likewise  from  rabbits  and 

mice. 
Protecting  from  weeds. 
Pruning,  in  the  case  of  fruit  trees  and  bushes,  and  also  of 

ornamental  woody  plants   on  occasion,  and  sometimes 

even  of  annual  herbs. 
Staking  and  tying,  particularly  of  sprawly  garden  flowers. 
Persistent  picking  of  seed  pods  or  dead  flowers  from  flower 

plants,  in  order  to  conserve  the  strength  of  the  plant  and 

to  prolong  its  season  of  bloom. 
Watering  in  dry  weather  (but  not  sprinkling  or  dribbling). 
Thorough  winter  protecting  of  plants  that  need  it. 
Removing  dead  leaves,  broken  branches,  weak  and  sickly 

plants,  and  otherwise  keeping  the  place  tidy  and  trim. 

Sowing  the  seeds. 

Prepare  the  surface  earth  well,  to  make  a  good  seed-bed. 
Plant  when  the  ground  is  moist,  if  possible,  and  preferably  just 
before  a  rain  if  the  soil  is  of  such  character  that  it  will  not  bake. 
For  shallow-planted  seeds,  firm  the  earth  above  them  by  walk- 
ing over  the  row  or  by  patting  it  down  with  a  hoe.  Special 
care  should  be  exercised  not  to  sow  very  small  and  slow-ger- 
minating seeds,  as  celery,  carrot,  onion,  in  poorly  prepared  soil 


THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  PLANTS  117 

or  in  ground  that  bakes.  With  such  seeds  it  is  well  to  sow 
seeds  of  radish  or  turnip,  for  these  germinate  quickly  and  break 
the  crust,  and  also  mark  the  row  so  that  tillage  may  be  begun 
before  the  regular-crop  seeds  are  up. 

Land  may  be  prevented  from  baking  over  the  seeds  by  scat- 
tering a  very  thin  layer  of  fine  litter,  as  chaff,  or  of  sifted  moss 
or  mold,  over  the  row.  A  board  is  sometimes  laid  on  the  row 
to  retain  the  moisture,  but  it  must  be  lifted  gradually  just  as 
soon  as  the  plants  begin  to  break  the  ground,  or  the  plants  will 
be  greatly  injured.  Whenever  practicable,  seed-beds  of  celery 
and  other  slow-germinating  seeds  should  be  shaded.  If  the 
beds  are  watered,  be  careful  that  the  soil  is  not  packed  by  the 
force  of  the  water  or  baked  by  the  sun.  In  thickly  sown  seed- 
beds, thin  or  transplant  the  plants  as  soon  as  they  have  made 
their  first  true  leaves. 

For  most  home-grounds,  seeds  may  be  sown  by  hand,  but  for 
large  areas  of  one  crop,  one  of  the  many  kinds  of  seed-sowers 
may  be  used.  The  particular  methods  of  sowing  seeds  are  usu- 
ally specified  in  the  seed  catalogues,  if  other  than  ordinary 
treatment  is  required.  The  sled-markers  (already  described, 
p.  109)  open  a  furrow  of  sufficient  depth  for  the  planting  of 
most  seeds.  If  marker  furrows  are  not  available,  a  furrow  may 
be  opened  with  a  hoe  for  such  deep-planted  seeds  as  peas  and 
sweet  peas,  or  by  a  trowel  or  end  of  a  rakestale  for  smaller 
seeds.  In  narrow  beds  or  boxes,  a  stick  or  ruler  (Fig.  115) 
may  be  used  for  opening  creases  to  receive  the  seeds. 

The  depth  at  which  seeds  are  to  be  planted  varies  with  the 
kind,  the  soil  and  its  preparation,  the  season,  and  whether  they 
are  planted  in  the  open  or  in  the  house.  In  boxes  and  under 
glass,  it  is  a  good  rule  that  the  seed  be  sown  at  a  depth  equal  to 
twice  its  own  diameter,  but  deeper  sowing  is  usually  necessary 
out  of  doors,  particularly  in  hot  and  dry  weather.  Strong  and 
hardy  seeds,  as  peas,  sweet  peas,  large  fruit-tree  seeds,  may  be 
planted  three  to  six  inches  deep.     Tender  seeds,  that  are  injured 


118  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

by  cold  and  wet,  may  be  planted  after  the  ground  is  settled  and 
warm  at  a  greater  depth  than  before  that  season.  As  a  rule, 
nothing  is  gained  by  sowing  tender  seeds  before  the  weather  is 
thoroughly  settled  and  the  ground  warm. 

Propagati7ig  by  cuttings. 

Many  common  plants  are  propagated  by  cuttings  rather  than 
by  seeds,  particularly  when  it  is  desired  to  increase  a  particular 
variety. 

Cuttings  are  parts  of  plants  inserted  in  soil  or  water  with  the 
intention  that  they  shall  grow  and  make  new  plants.  They  are 
of  various  kinds.  They  may  be  classified,  with  reference  to 
the  age  of  the  wood  or  tissue,  into  two  classes;  viz.  those  made 
from  perfectly  hard  or  dormant  wood  (taken  from  the  winter 
twigs  of  trees  and  bushes),  and  those  made  from  more  or  less 
immature  or  growing  wood.  They  may  be  classified  again  in 
respect  to  the  part  of  the  plants  from  which  they  are  taken,  as 
root-cuttings,  tuber-cuttings  (as  the  ordinary  ''seed"  planted 
for  potatoes),  stem-cuttings,  and  leaf -cuttings. 

Dormant  stem-cuttings. 

Dormant- wood  cuttings  are  used  for  grapes  (Fig.  122)^ 
currants,  gooseberries,  willows,  poplars,  and  many  other  kinds  of 
soft-wooded  trees  and  shrubs.     Such   cuttings  are  ordinarily 

taken  in  fall  or  winter,  but  cut  into 

^uRfACi Ijorll     I  SOIL  the  proper  lengths  and  then  buried  in 

^^'well     I    iPl  sand  or  moss  where  they  do  not  freeze, 

soa^       11    \l     IV  i^^  order  that  the  lower  end  may  heal 


over  or  callous.     In  the  spring  these 
cuttings  are  set  in  the  ground,  pref- 
erably in   a  rather  sandy  and  well- 
122.    The  planting  of  the     drained  place. 
dormant-woodcuttings.  Usually,    hardwood    cuttings    are 

made  with  two  to  four  joints  or  buds,  and  when  they  are 


THE  HANDLING   OF   THE  PLANTS 


119 


planted,  only  the  upper  bud  projects  above  the  ground. 
They  may  be  planted  erect,  as  Fig.  122  shows,  or  somewhat 
slanting.  In  order  that  the  cutting  may  reach  down  to 
moist  earth,  it  is  desirable  that  it  should  not  be  less  than  6 
in.  long ;  and  it  is  sometimes  better  if  it  is  8  to  12  in.  If  the 
wood  is  short-jointed,  there  may  be  several 
buds  on  a  cutting  of  this  length ;  and  in  order 
to  prevent  too  many  shoots  from  arising  from 
these  buds  the  lowermost  buds  are  often  cut 
out.  Roots  will  start  as  readily  if  the  lower 
buds  are  removed,  since  the  buds  grow  into 
shoots  and  not  into  roots. 

Cuttings  of  currants,  grapes,  gooseberries, 
and  the  like  may  be  set  in  rows  that  are  far 
enough  apart  to  admit  of  easy  tillage  either 
with  horse  or  hand  tools,  and  the  cuttings  may 
be  placed  3  to  8  in.  apart  in  the  row.  The 
English  varieties  of  gooseberries,  considerably  grown  in  this 
country,  do  not  propagate  readily  from  cuttings. 

After  the  cuttings  have  grown  one  season,  the  plants  are  usu- 
ally transplanted  and  given  more  room  for  the  second  year's 
growth,  after  which  time  they  are  ready  to  be  set  in  permanent 
plantations.  In  some  cases,  the  plants  are  set  at  the  end  of  the 
first  year;  but  two-year  plants  are  stronger  and  usually  prefer- 
able. 


123.   Carnation 
cutting. 


Cuttings  of  roots. 

Root-cuttings  are  used  for  blackberries,  raspberries,  and  a 
few  other  things.  They  are  ordinarily  made  of  roots  from  the 
size  of  a  lead  pencil  to  one's  little  finger,  and  are  cut  in  lengths 
from  3  to  5  in.  long.  The  cuttings  are  stored  the  same  as 
stem-cuttings  and  allowed  to  callous.  In  the  spring  they  are 
planted  in  a  horizontal  or  nearly  horizontal  position  in  moist 
sandy  soil,  being  entirely  covered  to  a  depth  of  1  or  2  in. 


120 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


Green  cuttings. 

Softwood  or  greenwood  cuttings  are  usually  made  of  wood 
that  is  mature  enough  to  break  when  it  is  bent  sharply.  When 
the  wood  is  so  soft  that  it  will  bend  and  not  break,  it  is  too 
immature,  in  the  majority  of  plants,  for  the  making  of  good 
cuttings. 

One  to  two  joints  is  the  proper  length  of  a  greenwood  cutting. 

If  of  two  joints,  the  lower  leaves 
should  be  cut  off  and  the  upper 
leaves  cut  in  two  so  that  they  do 
not  present  their  entire  surface  to 
the  air  and  thereby  evaporate  the 
plant  juices  too  rapidly.  If  the  cut- 
ting is  of  only  one  joint,  the  lower 
end  is  usually  cut  just  above  a  joint. 
In  either  case,  the  cuttings  are  usu- 
ally inserted  in  sand  or  well-washed 
gravel,  nearly  or  quite  up  to  the  leaves.  Keep  the  bed  uniformly 
moist  throughout  its  depth,  but  avoid  any  soil  which  holds  so 
much  moisture  that  it  becomes  muddy  and  sour.  These  cuttings 
should  be  shaded  until  they  begin  to  emit  their  roots.  Coleus, 
geraniums,  fuchsias,  carnations,  and  nearly  all  the  common 
greenhouse  and  house  plants,  are  propagated  by  these  cuttings 
or  slips  (Figs.  123,  124). 

Cuttings  of  leaves. 

Leaf-cuttings  are  often  used  for  the  fancy-leaved  begonias, 
gloxinias,  and  a  few  other  plants.  The  young  plant  usually 
arises  most  readily  from  the  leaf-stalk  or  petiole.  The  leaf, 
therefore,  is  inserted  into  the  ground  much  as  a  green  cutting 
is.  Begonia  leaves  will  throw  out  young  plants  from  the  main 
ribs  when  these  veins  or  ribs  are  cut.  Therefore,  well-grown 
and  firm  begonia  leaves  are  sometimes  laid  flat  on  the  sand  and 


124.   Verbena  cutting. 


THE  HANDLING   OF   THE  PLANTS 


121 


the  main  veins  cut;  then  the  leaf  is  weighted  down  with  pebbles 

or  pegs  so  that  these  cut  surfaces  come  into  intimate  contact 

with  the  soil  beneath.     The  usual 

way,  however,  is  to  cut  a  triangular 

piece  of  the  leaf    (Fig.   125)    and 

insert    the    tip   in   sand.     So   long 

as    the    cutting    is    alive,    do    not 

be  discouraged,    even  if  it  do  not 

start. 


125.    Leaf-cutting. 


General  treatment  of  cuttings. 

In  the  growing  of  all  greenwood 
and  leaf -cuttings,  it  is  well  to  remem- 
ber that  they  should  have  a  gentle 
bottom  heat;  the  soil  should  be 
such  that  it  will  hold  moisture 
and  yet  not  remain  wet;  the  air 
about  the  tops  should  not  become 
close  and  stagnant,  else  the  plants  will  damp  off;  and  the  tops 
should  be  shaded  for  a  tune.  In  order  to  control  all  the 
conditions,  such  cuttings  are  grown  under 
cover,  as  in  a  greenhouse,  coldframe,  or  a 
box  in  the  residence  window. 

An  excellent  method  of  starting  cut- 
tings in  the  living  room  is  to  make  a  double 
pot,  as  shown  in  Fig.  126.  Inside  a  6-in. 
pot  set  a  4-in.  pot.  Fill  the  bottom,  a,  with 
gravel  or  bits  of  brick,  for  drainage.     Plug 


126.  Cuttings  inserted 
in  a  double  pot. 


the  hole  in  t^  o  inside   pot.     Fill  the  spaces 


between,  c,  with  earth,  and  in  this  set  the 
cuttings.  Water  may  be  poured  into  the  inner  pot,  6,  to 
supply  the  moisture. 


122 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


127.   To  check  evaporation 
at  transplanting. 


Transplanting  young  seedlings. 

In  the  transplanting  of  cabbages,  tomatoes,  flowers,  and  all 
plants  recently  started  from  seeds,  it  is  important  that  the 
ground  be  thoroughly  fined  and  com- 
pacted. Plants  usually  live  better  if 
transplanted  into  ground  that  has  been 
freshly  turned.  If  possible,  transplant 
in  cloudy  or  rainy  weather,  particularly 
if  late  in  the  season.  Firm  the  earth 
snugly  about  the  roots  with  the  hands  or  feet,  in  order  to  bring 
up  the  soil  moisture;  but  it  is  generally  best  to  rake  the  surface 
in  order  to  reestablish  the  earth-mulch,  unless  the  plants  are  so 
small  that  their  roots  cannot  reach  through  the  mulch  (p.  98). 

If  the  plants  are  taken  from 
pots,  water  the  pots  some  time 
in  advance,  and  the  ball  of 
earth  will  fall  out  when  the 
pot  is  inverted  and  tapped 
lightly.  In  taking  up  plants 
from  the  ground,  it  is  advis- 
able, also,  to  water  them  well 
some  time  before  removing; 
the  earth  may  then  be  held 
on  the  roots.  See  that  the 
watering  is  done  far  enough 
in  advance  to  allow  the  water 
to  settle  away  and  distribute  itself;  the  earth  should  not  be 
muddy  when  the  plants  are  removed. 

In  order  to  reduce  the  evaporation  from  the  plant,  shingles 

may  be  stuck  into  the  ground  to  shade  the  plant;   or  a  screen 

may  be  improvised  with  pieces  of  paper  (Fig.  122),  tin  cans, 

inverted  flower-pots,  coverings  of  brush,  or  other  means. 

It  is  nearly  always  advisable  to  remove  some  of  the  foliage, 


128.   Plants  sheared  and  not  sheared 
when  transplanted. 


THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  PLANTS 


123 


particularly  if  the  plant  has  several  leaves  and  if  it  has  not  been 
grown  in  a  pot,  and  also  if  the  transplanting  is  done  in  warm 
weather.  Figure  128  shows  a  good  treatment  for  transplanted 
plants.  With  the  foliage  all  left  on,  the  plants  are  likely  to 
behave  as  in  the  upper  row;  but  with  most  of  it  cut  off,  as  in  the 
lower  row,  there  is  little  wilting,  and  new  leaves  soon  start. 
Figure  129  also  shows  what  part  of  the  leaves  may  be  cut  off  on 
transplanting.  If  the  ground  is  freshly  turned  and  the  trans- 
planting is  well  done,  it  rarely  will  be  necessary  to  water  the 


129.  Where  to  shear 
the  tops  of  young 
plants. 


130.   Trowel 
dibber. 


131.  The  dibber. 


r 


132.  Home- 
made pad- 
ded dibber. 


plants;  but  if  watering  is  necessary,  it  should  be  done  at  night- 
fall, and  the  surface  should  be  loosened  the  next  morning  or 
as  soon  as  it  becomes  dry. 

In  the  transplanting  of  young  plants,  some  kind  of  a  dibber 
should  be  used  to  make  the  holes.  Dibbers  make  holes  wdthout 
removing  any  of  the  earth.  A  good  form  of  dibber  is  shown  in 
Fig.  130,  which  is  Hke  a  flat  or  plane  trowel.  Many  persons  pre- 
fer a  cyHndrical  and  conical  dibber,  Hke  that  shown  in  Fig.  131. 
For  hard  soils  and  larger  plants,  a  strong  dibber  may  be  made 
from  a  limb  that  has  a  right-angled  branch  to  serve  as  a  handle. 
This  handle  may  be  softened  by  sHpping  a  piece  of  rubber  hose 
on  it  (Fig.  132).  A  long  iron  dibber,  which  may  also  be  used  as 
a  crow-bar,  is  shown  in  Fig.  133.  In  transplanting  with  the 
dibber,  a  hole  is  first  made  by  a  thrust  of  the  tool,  and  the  earth 


124 


MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 


I 


133.  Dibber 
and  crow-bar 
combined. 

of  the  pot, 


134.   Straw- 
berry planter. 


is  then  pressed  against  the  root  by  means  of  the 
foot,  hand,  or  the  dibber  itself  (as  in  Fig.  131). 
The  hole  is  not  filled  by  putting  in  dirt 
at  the  top. 

For  large  plants,  a  broader  dibber 
may  be  used.  An  implement  like 
that  shown  in  Fig.  134  is  useful  for 
setting  strawberries  and  other  plants 
with  large  roots.  It  is  made  of  two- 
inch  plank,  with  a  block  on  top  to  act 
as  foot-rest  and  to  prevent  the  blade  from  going 
too  deep.  In  order  to  provide  space  for  the  foot 
and  easily  to  direct  the  thrust,  the  handle  may  be 
placed  at  one  side  of  the  middle.  For  plunging 
pots,  a  dibber  Hke  that  shown  in  Fig.  135  is  useful, 
particularly  when  the  soil  is  so  hard  that  a  long- 
pointed  tool  is  necessary.  The 
bottom  of  the  hole  may  be 
filled  with  earth  before  the 
pot  is  inserted;  but  it  is  often 
advisable  to  leave  the  vacant 
space  below  (as  in  6)  to  pro- 
vide drainage,  to  keep  the 
plant  from  rooting,  and  to 
prevent  earth-worms  from  en- 
tering the  hole  in  the  bottom 

For  smaller  pots,  the  tool 


The   plunging  of 
pots. 


may  be  inserted  a  less  depth  (as  at  c).  135. 

Transplanting  established  plants  and  trees. 

In  setting  potted  plants  out  of  doors,  it  is  nearly  always  ad- 
visable to  plunge  them,  — that  is  to  set  the  pots  into  the  earth,  — 
unless  the  place  is  very  wet.  The  pots  are  then  watered  by 
the  rainfall,  and  demand  little  care.     If  the  plants  are  to  be 


THE  HANDLING    OF    THE  PLANTS 


126 


returned  to  the  house  in  the  fall,  they  should  not  be  allowed  to 
root  through  the  hole  in  the  pot,  and  the  rooting  may  be  pre- 
vented by  turning  the  pot 
around  every  few  days.  Large 
decorative  plants  may  be 
made  to  look  as  if  growing 
naturally  in  the  lawn  by  sink- 
ing the  pot  or  box  just  below 
the  surface  and  rolling  the  sod 
over  it,  as  suggested  in  Fig. 

136.  A  space  around  and  be- 
low the  tub  may  be  provided 
to  insure  drainage. 

Tub-plants. 

For  the  shifting  of  very 
large  tub-plants,  a  box  or  tub 
with  movable  sides,  as  in  Fig. 

137,  is  handy  and  efficient.  The  plant-box  recommended  to 
parties  who  grew  plants  for  exhibition  at  the  World's  Fair  is 
shown  in  Fig.   138.     It  is  made  of  strong  boards  or  planks. 

At  A  is  shown  the  inside  of  one  of  two 
opposite  sections  or  sides,  four  feet  wide 
at  top,  three  feet  wide  at  bottom,  and 
three  feet  high.  The  cleats  are  two-by- 
four  scantlings,  through  which  holes  are 
bored  to  admit  the  bolts  with  which  the 
box  is  to  be  held  together.  B  is  an  out- 
side view  of  one  of  the  alternating  sections, 
three  feet  four  inches  wide  at  top,  two  feet  four  inches  at 
bottom,  and  three  feet  deep.  A  one-by-six  strip  is  nailed 
through  the  center  to  give  strength.  C  is  an  end  view  of  A, 
showing  the  bolts  and  also  a  two-by-four  cleat  to  which  the 
bottom  is  to  be  nailed.     This  box  was  used  mostly  for  trans- 


136.   Setting  large  tub-plants  in  the  lawn. 


137.   Plant-box  with  a 
movable  side. 


126 


MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 


138.    Box  for  transporting  large  transplanted  stock. 

porting  large  growing  stock  to  the  exposition,  the  stock  having 
been  dug  from  the  open  and  the  box  secured  around  the  ball 
of  earth. 


When  to  transplant. 

In  general,  it  is  best  to  set  hardy  plants  in  the  fall,  particu- 
larly if  the  ground  is  fairly  dry  and  the  exposure  is  not  too  bleak. 
To  this  class  belong  most  of  the  fruit  trees  and  ornamental  trees 
and  shrubs;  also  hardy  herbs,  as  columbines,  peonies,  lilies, 
bleeding-hearts,  and  the  like.  They  should  be  planted  as  soon 
as  they  are  thoroughly  mature,  so  that  the  leaves  begin  to  fall 
naturally.  If  any  leaves  remain  on  the  tree  or  bush  at  planting 
time,  strip  them  off,  unless  the  plant  is  an  evergreen.  It  is 
generally  best  not  to  cut  back  fall-planted  trees  to  the  full 
extent  desired,  but  to  shorten  them  three-fourths  of  the  re- 
quired amount  in  the  fall,  and  take  off  the  remaining  fourth  in 


THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  PLANTS  127 

the  spring,  so  that  no  dead  or  dry  tips  are  left  on  the  plant. 
Evergreens,  as  pines  and  spruces,  are  not  headed-in  much, 
and  usually  not  at  all. 

All  tender  and  very  small  plants  should  be  set  in  the  spring, 
in  which  case  very  early  planting  is  desirable  ;  and  spring 
planting  is  always  to  be  advised  when  the  ground  is  not 
thoroughly  drained  and  well  prepared. 

Depth  to  transplant. 

In  well-compacted  land,  trees  and  shrubs  should  be  set  at 
about  the  same  depth  as  they  stood  in  the  nursery,  but  if  the 
land  has  been  deeply  trenched  or  if  it  is  loose  from  other  causes, 
the  plants  should  be  set  deeper,  because  the  earth  will  probably 
settle.  The  hole  should  be  filled  with  fine  surface  earth.  It  is 
generally  not  advisable  to  place  manure  in  the  hole,  but  if  it  is 
used,  it  should  be  of  small  amount  and  very  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  earth,  else  it  will  cause  the  soil  to  dry  out.  In  lawns 
and  other  places  where  surface  tillage  cannot  be  given,  a  light 
mulch  of  Htter  or  manure  may  be  placed  about  the  plants; 
but  the  earth-mulch  (page  98),  when  it  can  be  secured,  is  much 
the  best  conserver  of  moisture. 

Making  the  rows  straight. 

In  order  to  set  trees  in  rows,  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  garden 
Hne  (Fig.  96),  or  to  mark  out  the  ground  with  some  of  the 


~mm- 


m^tr^^^rh 


139.   A  planting  board. 


128 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


devices  already  described  (Figs.  113-120);  or  in  large  areas,  the 
place  may  be  staked  out.  In  planting  orchards,  the  area  is 
laid  out  (preferably  by  a  surveyor)  with  two  or  more  rows  of 
stakes  so  placed  that  a  man  may  sight  from  one  fixed  point  to 


140.    Device  for  placing  the  tree. 

another.     Two  or  three  men  work  to  best  advantage  in  such 
planting. 

There  are  various  devices  for  locating  the  place  of  the  stake 
after  the  stake  has  been  removed  and  the  hole  dug,  in  case  the 

-I— rp    area  is  not  regularly  staked 

ail,.-.        ..    IUV\\ 


out  in  such  a  way  that  sight- 
ing across  the  area  may  be 
employed.  One  of  the  sim- 
plest is  shown  in  Fig.  139. 
It  is  a  narrow  and  thin  board 
with  a  notch  in  the  center 
and  a  peg  in  either  end,  one 
of  the  pegs  being  stationary. 
The  implement  is  so  placed 
that  the  notch  meets  the 
stake,  then  one  end  of  it  is 

141.   Lining  a  tree  from  a  stake.  thrOWU  OUt  of  the  Way  Until 

the  hole  is  dug.  When  the  implement  is  brought  again  to  its 
original  position,  the  notch  marks  the  place  of  the  stake  and 
the  tree.  Figure  140  is  a  device  with  a  lid,  in  the  end  of  which 
is  a  notch  to  mark  the  place  of  the  stake.  This  lid  is  thrown 
back,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  when  the  hole  is  being 
dug.  Figure  141  shows  a  method  of  bringing  trees  in  row  by 
measuring  from  a  line. 


THE  HANDLING   OF   THE  PLANTS 


129 


Cutting-back  ;  filling. 

In  the  planting  of  any  tree  or  bush,  the  roots  should  be  cut 
back  beyond  all  breaks  and  serious  bruises,  and  fine  earth  should 
be  thoroughly  filled  in  and  firmed  about  them,  as  in  Fig.  142. 
No  implement  is  so  good  as  the  fingers  for  working  the  soil  about 


'■'ll''  //■■//'/'' 
142.   Proper  planting  of  a  tree. 


143.   Careless  planting  of  a  tree. 


the  roots.  If  the  tree  has  many  roots,  work  it  up  and  down 
slightly  several  times  during  the  filling  of  the  hole,  to  settle  the 
earth  in  place.  When  the  earth  is  thrown  in  carelessly,  the 
roots  are  jammed  together,  and  often  an  empty  place  is  left 
beneath  the  crown,  as  in  Fig.  143,  which  causes  the  roots  to  dry 
out. 

The  marks  on  the  tops  of  these  trees  in  Figs.  142  and  143  show 
where  the  branches  may  be  cut.    See  also  Fig.  152.    Figures  144 


130  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

and  145  show  the  tops  of  trees  after  pruning.  Strong  branchy 
trees,  as  apples,  pears,  and  ornamental  trees,  are  usually  headed 
back  in  this  way,  upon  planting.  If  the  tree 
has  one  straight  leader  and  many  or  several 
slender  branches  (Fig.  146),  it  is  usually 
pruned,  as  in  Fig.  147,  each  branch  being 
cut  back  to  one  or  two  buds.  If  there  are 
no  branches,  or  very  few  of  them,  —  in  which 
case  there  will  be  good  buds  upon  the  main 
stem,  —  the  leader  may  be  cut  back  a  third 
or  half  its  length,  to  a  mere  whip.  Ornamen- 
tal bushes  with  long  tops  are  usually  cut 
144.  Pruned  young   back  a  third  or  a  half  when  set,  as  shown 

tree.  -^  p-g    45^ 

Always  leave  a  little  of  the  small 
bud-making  growth.  The  practice  of 
cutting  back  shade  trees  to  mere  long 
clubs,  or  poles,  with  no  small  twigs, 
is  to  be  discouraged.  The  tree  in 
such  case  is  obhged  to  force  out  ad- 
ventitious buds  from  the  old  wood, 
and  it  may  not  have  vigor  enough  to 
do  this;  and  the  process  may  be  so 
long  delayed  as  to  allow  the  tree  to  be 
overtaken  by  drought  before  it  gets  a 
start. 

Removing  very  large  trees.  145.  Pruned  young  tree. 

Very  large  trees  can  often  be  moved  with  safety.  It  is  es- 
sential that  the  transplanting  be  done  when  the  trees  are  per- 
fectly dormant,  —  winter  being  preferable,  —  that  a  large  mass 
of  earth  and  roots  be  taken  with  the  tree,  and  that  the  top  be 
vigorously  cut  back.  Large  trees  are  often  moved  in  winter 
on  a  stone-boat,  by  securing  a  large  ball  of  earth  frozen  about 


THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  PLANTS 


131 


the  roots.  This  frozen  ball  is  secured  by  digging  about  the 
tree  for  several  days  in  succession,  so  that  the  freezing  pro- 
gresses with  the  excavation.  A  good  device  for  moving  such 
trees  is  shown  in  Fig.  148.     The  trunk  of  the  tree  is  securely 


\^ 


146.   Peach  tree. 


147.   Peach  tree  pruned  for  planting. 


wrapped  with  burlaps  or  other  soft  material,  and  a  ring  or  chain 
is  then  secured  about  it.  A  long  pole,  b,  is  run  over  the  truck 
of  a  wagon  and  the  end  of  it  is  secured  to  the  chain  or  ring  upon 
the  tree.  This  pole  is  a  lever  for  raising  the  tree  out  of  the 
ground.     A  team  is  hitched  at  a,  and  a  man  holds  the  pole  h. 


132 


MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 


Other  and  more  elaborate  devices  are  in  use,  but  this  explains 
the  idea  and  is  therefore  sufficient  for  the  present  purpose ;  for 
when  a  person  desires  to  remove  a  very  large  tree  he  should 
secure,  the  services  of  an  expert. 

The  following  more  exphcit  directions  for  moving  large  trees 
are  by  Edward  Hicks,  who  has  had  much  experience  in  the 
business,  and  who  made  this  report  to  the  press  a  few  years  ago : 
''In  moving  large  trees,  say  those  ten  to 
twelve  inches  in  diameter  and  twenty-five 
to  thirty  feet  high,  it  is  well  to  prepare 
them  by  trimming  and  cutting  or  sawing 
off  the  roots  at  a  proper  distance  from  the 
trunks,  say  six  to  eight  feet,  in  June. 
The  cut  roots  heal  over  and  send  out 
^/  fibrous  roots,  which  should  not  be  in- 
.  jured  more  than  is  necessary  in  moving 
the  trees  next  fall  or  spring.  Young, 
thrifty  maples  and  elms,  originally 
from  the  nursery,  do  not 
need  such  preparation 
nearly  as  much  as  other 
and  older  trees.  In  mov- 
ing a  tree,  we  begin  by 


148.    Moving  a  large  tree. 


digging  a  wide  trench  six  to  eight  feet  from  it,  leaving  all  possible 
roots  fast  to  it.  By  digging  under  the  tree  in  the  wide  trench,  and 
working  the  soil  out  of  the  roots  by  means  of  round  or  dull- 
pointed  sticks,  the  soil  falls  into  the  cavity  made  under  the  tree. 
Three  or  four  men  in  as  many  hours  could  get  so  much  of  the 
soil  away  from  the  roots  that  it  would  be  safe  to  attach  a  rope 
and  tackle  to  the  upper  part  of  the  trunk  and  to  some  adjoining 
post  or  tree  for  the  purpose  of  pulling  the  tree  over.  A  good 
quantity  of  bagging  must  be  put  around  the  tree  under  the  rope 
to  prevent  injury,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  the  pulling  of 
the  rope  does  not  split  off  or  break  a  limb.     A  team  is  hitched  to 


THE  HANDLING   OF   THE  PLANTS 


133 


the  end  of  the  draft  rope,  and  slowly  driven  in  the  proper  direc- 
tion to  pull  the  tree  over.  If  the  tree  does  not  readily  tip  over, 
dig  under  and  cut  off  any  fast  root.  While  it  is  tipped  over, 
work  out  more  of  the  soil  with  the  sticks.  Now  pass  a  large 
rope,  double,  around  a  few  large  roots  close  to  the  tree,  leaving 
the  ends  of  the  rope  turned  up  by  the  trunk  to  be  used  in  lift- 
ing the  tree  at  the  proper  time.  Tip  the  tree  in  the  opposite 
direction  and  put  another  large  rope  around  the  large  roots 
close  to  the  trunk;  remove  more  soil  and  see  that  no  roots  are 
fast  to  the  ground. 
Four  guy-ropes  at- 
tached to  the  upper 
parts  of  the  tree, 
as  shown  in  the  cut 
(Fig.  149),  should 
be  put  on  properly 
and  used  to  pre- 
vent the  tree  from 
tipping  over  too  far 
as  well  as  to  keep  it 
upright.  A  good 
deal  of  the  soil  can  i^^-  ^^'^  ^'^^  '"^^'^^  *^  "'■^• 

be  put  back  in  the  hole  without  covering  the  roots  to  get  it  out  of 
the  way  of  the  machine.  The  latter  can  now  be  placed  about  the 
tree  by  removing  the  front  part,  fastened  by  four  bolts,  placing 
the  frame  with  the  hind  wheels  around  the  tree  and  replacing  the 
front  parts.  Two  timbers,  three-by-nine  inches,  and  twenty 
feet  long,  are  now  placed  on  the  ground  under  the  hind  wheels, 
and  in  front  of  them,  parallel  to  each  other  for  the  purpose  of 
keeping  the  hind  wheels  up  out  of  the  big  hole  when  drawing 
the  tree  away;  and  they  are  also  used  while  backing  the  hind 
wheels  across  the  new  hole  in  which  the  tree  is  to  be  planted. 
The  machine  (Figs.  149,  150)  consists  of  a  hind  axle  twelve  feet 
long,  and  broad-tired  wheels.     The  frame  is  made  of  spruce 


134 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


three-by-eight  inches  and  twenty  feet  long.  The  braces  are 
three-by-five  inches  and  ten  feet  long,  and  upright  three-by-nine 
inches  and  three  feet  high;  these  are  bolted  to  the  hind  axle 
and  main  frame.  The  front  axle  has  a  set  of  blocks  bolted 
together  and  of  sufficient  height  to  support  the  front  end  of  the 
frame.  Into  the  top  timbers,  three-by-six  inches,  hollows  are 
cut  at  the  proper  distances  to  receive  the  ends  of  two  locust 
rollers.     A  windlass  or  winch  is  put  at  each  end  of  the  frame, 

by  which   trees  can 
'>'''^^-t'fei^<?Ki]  easily    and    steadily 

f^'Uf-.t  .  *.  be  lifted  and  lowered, 

the  large  double 
ropes  passing  over 
the  rollers  to  the 
windlasses.  A  locust 
boom  is  put  across 
the  machine  under 
the  frame  and  above 
the  braces;  iron  pins 
hold  it  in  place.  The 
side  guy-ropes  are 
made  fast  to  the  ends 

150.   The  tree  ready  to  move.  ^f    ^j^jg    l^^^^^j^^^      rpj^^ 

other  guy-ropes  are  made  fast  to  the  front  and  rear  parts  of  the 
machine.  Four  rope  loops  are  made  fast  inside  of  the  frame,  and 
are  so  placed  that  by  passing  a  rope  around  the  trunk  of  the  tree 
and  through  the  loops  two  or  three  times,  a  rope  ring  is  made 
around  the  tree  that  will  keep  the  trunk  in  the  middle  of  the  frame 
and  not  allow  it  to  hit  either  the  edges  or  the  rollers  —  a  very 
necessary  safeguard.  As  the  tree  is  slowly  hfted  by  the  wind- 
lasses, the  guy-ropes  are  loosened,  as  needed.  The  tree  will  pass 
obstructions,  such  as  trees  by  th^e  roadside,  but  in  doing  so  it  is 
better  to  lean  the  tree  backward.  When  the  tree  has  arrived  at 
its  new  place,  the  two  timbers  are  placed  along  the  opposite  edges 


THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  PLANTS  135 

of  the  hole  so  that  the  hind  wheels  can  be  backed  over  it.  The 
tree  is  then  lowered  to  the  proper  depth,  and  made  plumb  by 
the  guy-ropes,  and  good,  mellow  soil  is  thrown  in  and  packed 
well  into  all  the  cavities  under  the  roots.  When  the  hole  is 
half  filled,  several  barrels  of  water  should  be  poured  in;  this 
will  wash  the  soil  into  the  cavities  under  the  center  of  the  tree 
much  better.  When  the  water  has  settled  away,  fill  in  and 
pack  the  soil  till  the  hole  is  little  more  than  full.  Leave  a 
depression,  so  that  all  the  rain  that  may  fall  will  be  retained. 
The  tree  should  now  be  judiciously  trimmed  and  the  machine 
removed.  Five  men  can  take  up,  move,  and  plant  a  tree  in  a 
day,  if  the  distance  is  short  and  the  digging  not  too  hard.  The 
tree  should  be  properly  wired  to  stakes  to  prevent  the  wind 
from  blowing  it  over.  The  front  part  of  the  machine  is  a  part 
of  our  platform  spring  market-wagon,  while  the  hind  wheels  are 
from  a  wood-axle  wagon.  A  tree  ten  inches  in  diameter,  with 
some  dirt  adhering  to  its  roots,  will  weigh  a  ton  or  more." 

Winter  ^protection  of  plants. 

If  the  ground  is  not  ready  for  planting  in  the  fall,  or  if  it  is 
desired  for  any  reason  to  delay  until  spring,  the  trees  or  bushes 
may  be  heeled-in,  as  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  151.  The  roots 
are  laid  in  a  furrow  or  trench, 
and  are  covered  with  well- 
firmed  earth.  Straw  or  ~ 
manure  may  be  thrown  over 
the  earth  still  further  to  pro- 
tect the  roots,  but  if  it  is  ,,,    r^       .    ,  j  •   f      •  *  , 

'  .  151.   Trees  heeled-in  for  winter. 

thrown  over  the  tops,  mice 

may  be  attracted  by  it  and  the  trees  be  girdled.  Tender  trees 
or  bushes  may  be  hghtly  covered  to  the  tips  with  earth.  Plants 
should  be  heeled-in  only  in  loose,  warm,  loamy  or  sandy  ground 
and  in  a  well-drained  place. 


136  MANUAL   OF  GARDENING 

Fall-planted  trees  should  generally  be  mounded  up,  sometimes 
even  as  high  as  shown  in  Fig.  152.  This  hilling  holds  the  plant 
in  position,  carries  off  the  water,  prevents  too  deep  freezing,  and 
holds  the  earth  from  heaving.  The  mound  is  taken  away  in 
the  spring.  It  is  sometimes  advisable  to  mound-up  established 
trees  in  the  fall,  but  on  well-drained  land  the  practice  is  usually 
not  necessary.  In  hiUing  trees,  pains  should  be  taken  not  to 
leave  deep  holes,  from  which  the  earth  was  dug, 
close  to  the  tree,  for  water  collects  in  them. 
Roses  and  many  other  bushes  may  be  mounded 
in  the  fall  with  profit. 

It  is  always  advisable  to  mulch  plants  that 
are  set  in  the  fall.  Any  loose  and  dry  ma- 
terial —  as  straw,  manure,  leaves,  leafmold, 
litter  from  yards  and  stables,  pine  boughs  — 
may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  Very  strong 
or  compact  manures,  as  those  in  which  there 

152.   Tree   earthed     -g    jj^^jg    ^^^^^   ^^   jj^^^       ^honXd    be    avoided, 
up  for  winter.  ' 

The  ground  may  be  covered  to  a  depth  of 
five  or  six  inches,  or  even  a  foot  or  more  if  the  material  is  loose. 
Avoid  throwing  strong  manure  directly  on  the  crown  of  the 
plants,  especially  of  herbs,  for  the  materials  that  leach  from 
the  manure  sometimes  injure  the  crown  buds  and  the  roots. 

This  protection  may  also  be  given  to  estabHshed  plants,  par- 
ticularly to  those  which,  like  roses  and  herbaceous  plants,  are 
expected  to  give  a  profusion  of  bloom  the  following  year.  This 
mulch  affords  not  only  winter  protection,  but  is  an  efficient 
means  of  fertilizing  the  land.  A  large  part  of  the  plant-food 
materials  have  leached  out  of  the  mulch  by  spring,  and  have 
become  incorporated  in  the  soil,  where  the  plant  makes  ready 
use  of  them. 

Mulches  also  serve  a  most  useful  purpose  in  preventing  the 
ground  from  packing  and  baking  by  the  weight  of  snows  and 
rains,  and  the  cementing  action  of  too  much  water  in  the  surface 


THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  PLANTS 


137 


soil.      In  the  spring,  the  coarser  parts  of  the  mulch  may  be 
removed,  and  the  finer  parts  spaded  or  hoed  into  the  ground. 

Tender  bushes  and 
small  trees  may  be 
wrapped  with  straw, 
hay,  burlaps,  or 
pieces  of  matting  or 
carpet.  Even  rather 
large  trees,  as  bear- 
ing peach  trees,  are 
often  baled  up  in  this 


,\w, 

153.   Covering  plants  in  a  box. 

way,  or  sometimes  with  corn  fodder,  although  the  results  in  the 
protection  of  fruit-buds  are  not  often  very  satisfactory.  It  is 
important  that  no  grain  is  left  in  the  baling  material,  else  mice 
may  be  attracted  to  it.     (The  danger  of  gnawing  by  mice  that 

nest  in  winter  coverings  is  always  to  be 
anticipated.)  It  should  be  known,  too, 
that  the  object  in  tying  up  or  baling 
plants  is  not  so  much  to  protect  from 
direct  cold  as  to  mitigate  the  effects  of 
alternate  freezing  and  thawing,  and  to 
protect  from  drying  winds.  Plants 
may  be  wrapped  so  thick  and  tight  as 
to  injure  them. 

The  labor  of  protecting  large  plants 
is  often  great  and  the  results  uncertain,  and  in  most  cases  it 
is  a  question  whether  more  satisfaction  could  not  be  attained 
by  growing  only  hardy  trees  and  shrubs. 

The  objection  to  covering  tender  woody  plants  cannot  be 
urged  with  equal  force  against  tender  herbs  or  very  low  bushes, 
for  these  are  protected  with  ease.  Even  the  ordinary  mulch 
may  afford  sufficient  protection;  and  if  the  tops  kill  back,  the 
plant  quickly  renews  itself  from  near  the  base,  and  in  many 
plants  —  as  in  most  hybrid  perpetual  roses  —  the  best  bloom  is 


154.   Covering  plants  in    a 
barrel. 


138 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


on  these  new  growths  of  the  season.  Old  boxes  or  barrels  may 
be  used  to  protect  tender  low  plants  (Figs.  153,  154).  The 
box  is  filled  with  leaves  or  dry  straw  and  either  left  open  on  top 
or  covered  with  boards,  boughs,  or  even  with  burlaps  (Fig.  154). 
Connoisseurs  of  tender  roses  and  other  plants  sometimes  go 
to  the  pains  of  erecting  a  collapsible  shed  over  the  bush,  and 
fining  with  leaves  or  straw.     Whether  this  is  worth  while  de- 


155.   Lajang  clown  of  trellis-grown  blackberries. 


pends  wholly  on  the  degree  of  satisfaction  that  one  derives 
from  the  growing  of  choice  plants  (see  Roses,  in  Chap.  VIII). 

The  tops  of  plants  may  be  laid  do\vn  for  the  winter.  Figure 
155  shows  a  method  of  laying  do^vn  blackberries,  as  practiced  in 
the  Hudson  River  valley.  The  plants  were  tied  to  a  trelhs,  as 
the  method  is  in  that  country,  two  wires  {a,  h)  having  been  run 
on  either  side  of  the  row.  The  posts  are  hinged  on  a  pivot  to  a 
short  post  (c) ,  and  are  held  in  position  by  a  brace  (d) .  The  entire 
trellis  is  then  laid  down  on  the  approach  of  winter,  as  shown 
in  the  illustration.  The  blackberry  tops  are  so  strong  that  they 
hold  the  wires  up  from  the  ground,  even  when  the  trellis  is  laid 


THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  PLANTS  139 

down.  To  hold  the  wires  close  to  the  earth,  stakes  are  thrust 
over  them  in  a  slanting  position,  as  shown  at  n  n.  The  snow 
that  drifts  through  the  plants  ordinarily  affords  sufficient  pro- 
tection for  plants  which  are  as  hardy  as  grapes  and  berries.  In 
fact,  the  species  may  be  uninjured  even  without  cover,  since,  in 
their  prostrate  position,  they  escape  the  cold  and  drying  winds. 

In  severe  climates,  or  in  the  case  of  tender  plants,  the  tops 
should  be  covered  with  straw,  boughs,  or  litter,  as  recommended 
for  regular  mulch-covers.  Sometimes  a  V-shaped  trough  made 
from  two  boards  is  placed  over  the  stems  of  long  or  vine-like 
plants  that  have  been  laid  down.  All  plants  with  slender  or 
more  or  less  pliant  stems  can  be  laid  down  with  ease.  With 
such  protection,  figs  can  be  grown  in  the  northern  states.  Peach 
and  other  fruit  trees  may  be  so  trained  as  to  be  tipped  over  and 
covered. 

Laid-down  plants  are  often  injured  if  the  covering  remains 
too  late  in  the  spring.  The  ground  warms  up  early,  and  may 
start  the  buds  on  parts  of  the  buried  plants,  and  these  tender 
buds  may  be  broken  when  the  plants  are  raised,  or  injured  by 
sun,  wind,  or  frost.  The  plants  should  be  raised  while  the  wood 
and  buds  are  still  hard  and  dormant. 

Pruning. 

Pruning  is  necessary  to  keep  plants  in  shape,  to  make  them 
more  floriferous  and  fruitful,  and  to  hold  them  within  bounds. 

Even  annual  plants  often  may  be  pruned  to  advantage. 
This  is  true  of  tomatoes,  from  which  the  superfluous  or  crowd- 
ing shoots  may  be  removed,  especially  if  the  land  is  so  rich  that 
they  grow  very  luxuriantly;  sometimes  they  are  trained  to  a 
single  stem  and  most  of  the  side  shoots  are  taken  away  as  they 
appear.  If  plants  of  marigold,  gaillardia,  or  other  strong  and 
spreading  growers  are  held  by  stakes  or  wire-holders  (a  good 
practice),  it  may  be  advisable  to  remove  the  weak  and  sprawl- 
ing shoots.     Balsams  give  better  results  when  side  shoots  are 


140  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

taken  off.  The  removing  of  the  old  flowers,  which  is  to  be 
advised  with  flower-garden  plants  (page  116),  is  also  a  species 
of  pruning. 

Distinction  should  be  made  between  pruning  and  shearing. 
Plants  are  sheared  into  given  shapes.  This  may  be  necessary  in 
bedding-plants,  and  occasionally  when  a  formal  effect  is  desired 
in  shrubs  and  trees;  but  the  best  taste  is  displayed,  in  the  vast 
majority  of  cases,  in  allowing  the  plants  to  assume  their  natural 
habits,  merely  keeping  them  shapely,  cutting  out  old  or  dead 
wood,  and,  in  some  cases,  preventing  such  crowding  of  shoots 
as  will  reduce  the  size  of  the  bloom.  The  common  practice  of 
shearing  shrubbery  is  very  much  to  be  reprehended;  this  sub- 
ject is  discussed  from  another  point  of  view  on  page  24. 

The  pruner  should  know  the  flower-bearing  habit  of  the  plant 
that  he  prunes,  —  whether  the  bloom  is  on  the  shoots  of  last 
season  or  on  the  new  wood  of  the  present  season,  and  whether 
the  flower-buds  of  spring-blooming  plants  are  separate  from 
the  leaf-buds.  A  very  little  careful  observation  will  determine 
these  points  for  any  plant.  (1)  The  spring-blooming  woody 
plants  usually  produce  their  flowers  from  buds  perfected  the 
fall  before  and  remaining  dormant  over  winter.  This  is  true 
of  most  fruit-trees,  and  such  shrubs  as  lilac,  forsythia,  tree 
peony,  wistaria,  some  spireas  and  viburnums,  weigela,  deutzia. 
Cutting  back  the  shoots  of  these  plants  early  in  spring  or  late 
in  fall,  therefore,  removes  the  bloom.  The  proper  time  to 
prune  such  plants  (unless  one  intends  to  reduce  or  thin  the 
bloom)  is  just  after  the  flowering  season.  (2)  The  summer- 
blooming  woody  plants  usually  produce  their  flowers  on  shoots 
that  grow  early  in  the  same  season.  This  is  true  of  grapes, 
quince,  hybrid  perpetual  roses,  shrubby  hibiscus,  crape  myrtle, 
mock  orange,  hydrangea  (paniculata),  and  others.  Pruning  in 
winter  or  early  spring  to  secure  strong  new  shoots  is,  therefore, 
the  proper  procedure  in  these  cases. 

Remarks  on  pruning  may  be  found  under  the  discussion  of 


X 


THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  PLANTS  141 

roses  and  other  plants  in  subsequent  chapters,  when  the  plants 
need  any  special  or  peculiar  attention. 

Fruit-trees  and  shade-trees  are  usually  pruned  in  winter, 
preferably  late  in  winter,  or  in  very  early  spring.  However, 
there  is  usually  no  objection  to  moderate  pruning  at  any  time 
of  the  year;  and  moderate  pruning  every  year,  rather  than  vio- 
lent pruning  in  occasional  years,  is  to  be  advised.  It  is  an 
old  idea  that  summer  pruning  tends  to  favor  the  production  of 
fruit-buds  and  therefore  to  make  for  fruitfulness;  there  is  un- 
doubtedly truth  in  this,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  fruit- 
fulness  is  not  the  result  of  one  treatment  or  condition,  but  of  all 
the  conditions  under  which  the  plant  lives. 

All  limbs  should  be  removed  close  to  the  branch  or  trunk 
from  which  they  arise,  and  the  surface  of  the  wound  should  be 
practically  parallel  with  such  branch  or  trunk,  rather  than  to 
be  cut  back  to  stubs.     The  stubs  do  not  heal  readily. 

All  wounds  much  above  an  inch  across  may  be  protected  by 
a  coat  of  good  linseed-oil  paint;  but  smaller  wounds,  if  the 
tree  is  vigorous,  usually  require  no  protection.  The  object  of 
the  paint  is  to  protect  the  wound  from  cracking  and  decay  until 
the  healing  tissue  covers  it. 

Superfluous  and  interfering  branches  should  be  removed  from 
fruit-trees,  so  that  the  top  will  be  fairly  open  to  sun  and  to  the 
pickers.  Well-pruned  trees  allow  of  an  even  distribution  and 
uniform  development  of  the  fruit.  Watersprouts  and  suckers 
should  be  removed  as  soon  as  they  are  discovered.  How  open 
the  top  may  be,  will  depend  on  the  cHmate.  In  the  West,  open 
trees  suffer  from  sun-scald. 

The  fruit-bearing  habit  of  the  fruit-tree  must  be  considered 
in  the  pruning.  The  pruner  should  be  able  to  distinguish  fruit- 
buds  from  leaf-buds  in  such  species  as  cherries,  plums,  apricot, 
peach,  pear,  apple,  and  so  prune  as  to  spare  these  buds  or  to 
thin  them  understandingly.  The  fruit-buds  are  distinguished 
by  their  position  on  the  tree  and  by  their  size  and  shape.     They 


142  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

maybe  on  distinct  ''spurs"  or  short  branches,  in  all  the  above 
fruits;  or,  as  in  the  peach,  they  may  be  chiefly  lateral  on  the 
new  shoots  (in  the  peach,  the  fruit-buds  are  usually  two  at  a  node 
and  with  a  leaf -bud  between  them) ,  or,  as  sometimes  in  apples 
and  pears,  they  may  be  at  the  ends  of  last  year's  growths. 
Fruit-buds  are  usually  thicker,  or  ''fatter,"  than  leaf-buds,  and 
often  fuzzy.  Heading-back  the  tree  of  course  tends  to  concen- 
trate the  fruit-buds  and  to  keep  them  nearer  the  center  of 
the  tree-top;  but  heading-back  must  be  combined  with  in- 
telHgent  saving  and  thinning  of  the  interior  shoots.  Heading- 
back  of  pears  and  peaches  and  plums  is  usually  a  very  de- 
sirable practice. 

Tree  surgery  and  protection. 

Aside  from  the  regular  pruning  to  develop  the  tree  into  its 
best  form  to  enable  it  to  do  its  best  work,  there  are  wounds  and 
malformations  to  be  treated.  Recently,  the  treating  of  injured 
and  decayed  trees  has  received  much  attention,  and  "  tree  doc- 
tors" and  "tree  surgeons"  have  engaged  in  the  business. 
If  there  are  quacks  among  these  people,  there  are  also  compe- 
tent and  reliable  men  who  are  doing  useful  service  in  saving  and 
prolonging  the  life  of  trees;  one  should  choose  a  tree  doctor 
with  the  same  care  that  he  would  choose  any  other  doctor.  The 
liabihty  of  injury  to  street  trees  in  the  modern  city  and  the 
increasing  regard  for  trees,  render  the  services  of  good  experts 
increasingly  necessary. 

Street  trees  are  injured  by  many  causes:  as,  starving  because 
of  poor  soil  and  lack  of  water  under  pavements;  smoke  and  dust : 
leakage  from  gas  mains  and  from  electric  installation;  gnawing 
by  horses;  butchering  by  persons  stringing  wires;  carelessness 
of  contractors  and  builders;  wind  and  ice  storms;  overcrowd- 
ing; and  the  blundering  work  of  persons  who  think  that  they 
know  how  to  prune.  Well-enforced  municipal  regulations 
should  be  able  to  control  most  of  these  troubles. 


THE  HANDLING   OF   THE   PLANTS 


143 


Tree  guards. 

Along  roadsides  and  other  exposed  places  it  is  often  necessary 
bo  protect  newly  set  trees  from  horses,  boys,  and  vehicles. 
There  are  various  kinds  of  tree  guards  for  this 
purpose.  The  best  types  are  those  that 
are  more  or  less  open,  so  as  to  allow  the 
free  passage  of  air  and  which  are  so  far  re- 
moved from  the  body  of  the  tree  that  its 
trunk  may  expand  without  difficulty.  If  the 
guards  are  very  tight,  they  may  shade  the 
trunk  so  much  that  the  tree  may  suffer  when 
the  guard  is  removed, 
and  they  prevent  the  dis- 
covery of  insects  and  in- 
juries. It  is  important 
that  the  guard  does  not  fill 
with  litter  in  which  insects 
may  harbor.  As  soon  as 
the  tree  is  old  enough  to 
escape  injury,  the  guards 
should  be  removed.  A 
very  good  guard,  made  of 
laths  held  together  with 
three  strips  of  band-iron, 
and  secured  to  iron  posts, 
is  shown  in  Fig.  156.  Fig- 
ure 157  shows  a  guard 
made  by  winding  fencing 
wire  upon  three  posts  or 
stakes.  When  there  is 
likely  to  be  danger  from 
too  great  shading  of  the 
trunk,  this  latter  form  of 


'mm 


156.   Lath  tree 
guard. 


Wiro-and-iDost 
tree  guard. 


144 


MANUAL   OF  GARDENING 


158.   How  a  horse  may  be  hitched  to  a 
tree. 


guard  is  one  of  the  best. 
There  are  good  forms  of 
tree  guards  on  the  market. 
Of  course  hitching-posts 
should  be  provided,  wher- 
ever horses  are  to  stand,  to 
remove  the  temptation  of 
hitching  to  trees.  Figure 
158,  however,  shows  a  very 
good  device  when  a  hitching 
post  is  not  wanted.  A 
strong  stick,  four  or  five 
feet  long,  is  secured  to  the 
tree  by  a  staple  and  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  stick  is  a 
short  chain  with  a  snap  in  the  end.  The  snap  is  secured  to 
the  bridle,  and  the  horse  is  not  able  to  reach  the  tree. 

Mice  and  rabbits. 

Trees  and  bushes  are  often  seriously  injured  by  the  gnawing 
of  mice  and  rabbits.  The  best  preventive  is  not  to  have  the 
vermin.  If  there  are  no  places  in  which  rabbits  and  mice  can 
burrow  and  breed,  there  will  be  little  difficulty.  At  the  approach 
of  winter,  if  mice  are  feared,  the  dry  litter  should  be  removed 
from  about  the  trees,  or  it  should  be  packed  down  very  firm,  so 
that  the  mice  cannot  nest  in  it.  If  the  rodents  are  very  abun- 
dant, it  may  be  advisable  to  wrap  fine  wire  netting  about  the 
base  of  the  tree.  A  boy  who  is  fond  of  trapping  or  hunting  will 
ordinarily  solve  the  rabbit  difficulty.  Rags  tied  on  sticks 
which  are  placed  at  intervals  about  the  plantation  will  often 
frighten  rabbits  away. 

Girdled  trees. 

Trees  that  are  girdled  by  mice  should  be  wrapped  up  as  soon 
as  discovered,  so  that  the  wood  shall  not  become  too  dry.     When 


THE  HANDLING   OF   THE  PLANTS 


145 


warm  weather  approaches,  shave  off  the  edges  of  the  girdle  so 
that  the  heahng  tissue  may  grow  freely,  smear  the  whole  sur- 
face with  grafting-wax,  or  with  clay,  and  bind  the  whole  wound 
with  strong  cloths.  Even  though  the  tree  is  completely  girdled 
for  a  distance  of  three  or  four  inches,  it  usually 
may  be  saved  by  this  treatment,  unless  the 
injury  extends  into  the  wood.  The  water  from 
the  roots  rises  through  the  soft  wood  and  not 
between  the  bark  and  the  wood,  as  commonly 
supposed.  When  this  sap  water  has  reached 
the  foliage,  it  takes  part  in  the  elaboration  of 
plant-food,  and  this  food  is  distributed  through- 
out the  plant,  the  path  of  transfer  being  in  the 
inner  layers  of  bark.  This  food  material,  being 
distributed  back  to  the  girdle,  will  generally  heal 
over  the  wound  if  the  wood  is  not  allowed  to 
become  dry. 

In  some  cases,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  join 
the  bark  above  and  below  the  girdle  by  means 
of  cions,  which  are  whittled  to  a  wedge-shape  on  either  end, 
and  inserted  underneath  the  two  edges  of  the  bark  (Fig. 
159).  The  ends  of  the  cions  and  the  edges  of  the  wound  are 
held  by  a  bandage  of  cloth,  and  the  whole  work  is  protected 
by  melted  grafting-wax  poured  upon  it.^ 

Repairing  street  trees. 

The  following  advice  on  'Hree  surgery"  is  by  A.  D.  Taylor 
(Bulletin  256,  Cornell  University,  from  which  the  accompany- 
ing illustrations  are  adapted):  — 

»  A  good  grafting-wax  is  made  as  follows:  Into  a  kettle  place  one  part  by 
weight  of  tallow,  two  parts  of  beeswax,  four  parts  of  rosin.  When  completely 
melted,  pour  into  a  tub  or  pail  of  cold  water,  then  work  it  with  the  hands 
(which  should  be  greased)  until  it  develops  a  grain  and  becomes  the  color  of 
taffy  candy.  The  whole  question  of  the  propagation  of  plants  is  discussed  in 
"The  Nursery-Book." 
L 


159.   Bridge-graft- 
ing a  girdle. 


146 


MANUAL   OF  GARDENING 


"Tree  surgery  includes  the  intelligent  protection  of  all  me- 
chanical injuries  and  cavities.  Pruning  requires  a  previous  in- 
timate knowledge  of  the  habits  of  growth  of  trees;  surgery,  on 
the  other  hand,  requires  in  addition  a  knowledge  of  the  best 
methods  for  making  cavities  air-tight  and  preventing  decay. 
The  filling  of  cavities  in  trees  has  not  been  practiced  sufficiently 
long  to  warrant  making  a  definite  statement  as  to  the  per- 
manent success  or  failure  of  the  operation;  the  work  is  still  in 
,  „  an  experimental  stage.  The  car- 

m 


m 


160. 


A  cement-filled  cavity  at  the 
base  of  a  tree. 


ing  for  cavities  in  trees  must  be 
urged  as  the  only  means  of  pre- 
serving affected  specimens,  and 
the  preservation  of  many  noble 
specimens  has  been  at  least  tem- 
porarily assured  through  the 
efforts  of  those  practicing  this 
kind  of  work. 

*' Successful  operation  de- 
pends on  two  important  fac- 
tors: first,  that  all  decayed 
parts  of  the  cavity  be  wholly  removed  and  the  exposed  sur- 
face thoroughly  washed  with  an  antiseptic;  second,  that  the 
cavity,  when  filled,  must  be  air  tight  and  hermetically  sealed 
if  possible.  Trees  are  treated  as  follows:  The  cavity  is 
thoroughly  cleaned  by  removing  all  decayed  wood  and  wash- 
ing the  interior  surface  with  a  solution  of  copper  sulfate  and 
lime,  in  order  to  destroy  any  fungi  that  may  remain.  The 
edges  of  the  cavity  are  cut  smooth  in  order  to  allow  free  growth 
of  the  cambium  after  the  cavity  is  filled.  Any  antiseptic,  such 
as  corrosive  subhmate,  creosote,  or  even  paint,  may  answer  the 
purpose;  creosote,  however,  possesses  the  most  penetrating 
powers  of  any.  The  method  of  filling  the  cavities  depends  to  a 
great  extent  on  their  size  and  form.  Very  large  cavities  with 
great  openings  are  generally  bricked  on  the  outside,  over  the 


THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  PLANTS 


147 


opening,  and  filled  on  the  inside  with  concrete 
the  purpose  of  a  retaining  wall  to  hold  the 
Concrete  used  for  the  main  fiUing  is  usually 
made  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  good 
Portland  cement,  two  parts  sand,  and  four 
parts  crushed  stone,  the  consistency  of  the 
mixture  being  such  that  it  may  be  poured 
into  the  cavity  and  require  little  or  no  tamp- 
ing to  make  the  mass  solid.     (Fig.  160.) 

'^Filhngs  thus  made  are  considered  by 
expert  tree  surgeons  to  be  a  permanent  pre- 
ventive of  decay.  The  outside  of  the  filling 
is  always  coated  with  a  thin  covering  of 
concrete,  consisting  of  one  part  cement  to 
two  parts  fine  sand.  Cavities  resulting  from 
freezing,  and  which,  though  large  on  the  in- 
side, show  only  a  long  narrow  crack  on  the 
outside,  are  most  easily  filled  by  placing  a 
form  against  the  entire  length  of  the  opening, 
having  a  space  at  the  top  through  which  the 
cement  may  be  poured  (Fig.  161).  Another 
method  of  retaining  the  concrete  is  to  re- 
inforce it  from  the  outside  by  driving  rows 
of  spikes  along  the  inner  surface  of  either 
side  of  the  cavity  and  lacing  a  stout  wire 
across  the  face  of  the  cavity.  For  best  re- 
sults, all  fillings  must  come  flush  with  the 
inner  bark  when  finished.  During  the  first 
year,  this  growing  tissue  will  spread  over  the 
outer  edge  of  the  filling,  thus  forming  an  her- 
metically sealed  cavity.  In  the  course  of 
time,  the  outside  of  small  or  narrow  openings 
should  be  completely  covered  with  tissue, 
which  buries  the  filling  from  view. 


,  the  brick  serving 
concrete  in  place. 


161.  A  wound,  made 
b}^  freezing,  trimmed 
out  and  filled  with 
cement. 


148 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


162.  Bridge-grafting  or  in- 
arching from  saplings 
planted  about  the    tree. 


"It  has  been  found  that  there  is  a  tendency  for  portland  ce- 
ment to  contract  from  the  wood  after  it  dries,  leaving  a  space 
between  the  wood  and  the  cement  through  which  water  and 
germs  of  decay  may  enter.     A  remedy 
for  this  defect  has  been  suggested  in 
the  use  of  a  thick  coat  of  tar,  or  an 
elastic  cement  which  might  be  spread 
over  the  surface  of  the 
cavity    before    filling. 
The  cracking  of  port- 
land    cement    on   the 
surface  of  long  cavities 
is  caused  by  the  sway- 
ing   of    trees     during 
heavy   storms,    and 
should  not  occur  if  the  filling  is  correctly  done. 
*'In  addition  to  the  preservation  of  decayed 
specimens  by  filling  the  cavities,  as  above  out- 
lined, it  has  been  proposed  to  strengthen  the 
tree  by  treating  it  as  shown  in  Fig.  162.    Young 
saphngs  of  the  same  species,  after  having  be- 
come established  as  shown,  are  grafted  by  ap- 
proach to  the  mature  specimen. 

''Injury  frequently  results  from  error  in  the 
method  of  attempting  to  save  broken,  or  to 
strengthen  and  support  weak  branches  that 
are  otherwise  healthy.  The  means  used  for 
supporting  cracked,  wind-racked,  and  over- 
laden branches  which  show  a  tendency  to  spHt 
at  the  forks  are  bolting  and  chaining.  The 
practice  of  placing  iron  bands  around  large  branches  in  order 
to  protect  them  has  resulted  in  much  harm ;  as  the  tree  grows  and 
expands,  such  bands  tighten,  causing  the  bark  to  be  broken  and 
resulting  after  a  few  years  in  a  nartial  girdhng  (Fig.  163). 


163.  Faulty  meth- 
ods of  bracing 
a  crotched  tree. 
The  lower  meth- 
od is  wholly 
wrong.  The  up- 
per method  is 
good  if  the  bolt- 
heads  are  prop- 
erly counter- 
sunk and  the 
bolts  tightly 
fitted;  but  if  the 
distance  be- 
tween  the 
branches  is 
great,  it  is  bet- 
ter to  have  two 
bolts  and  join 
them  by  hooks, 
to  allow  of  wind 
movements. 


THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  PLANTS 


149 


*'  To  bolt  a  tree  correctly  is  comparatively  inexpensive.     The 
safest  method  consists  in  passing  a  strong  bolt  through   a 

hole  bored  in  the  branch  for  this 
purpose,  and  fastening  it  on  the 


164.   Trees  ruined  to  allow  of  the         165.    Accommodating  a  wall  to  a  valuable 
passage  of  wires.  tree. 

outside  by  means  of  a  washer  and  a  nut.  Generally  the  washer 
has  been  placed  against  the  bark  and  the  nut  then  holds  it 
in  place.  A  better  method  of  bolting,  and 
one  which  insures  a  neat  ap- 
pearance of  the  branch  in  ad- 
dition to  serving  as  the  most 
certain  safeguard  against  the 
entrance  of  disease,  is  to  coun- 
ter-sink the  nut  in  the  bark  and 
imbed  it  in  portland  cement. 
The  hole  for  the  sinking  of 
the  nut  and  washer  is  thickly  coated  with  lead  paint  and  then 
with  a  layer  of  cement,  on  which  are  placed  the  nut  and  washer, 
both  of  which  are  then  imbedded  in  cement.     If  the  outer 


166.  The  death  of 
long  stub. 


167.   Bungling 
pruning. 


150 


MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 


surface  of  the  nut  be  flush  with  the  plane  of  the  bark,  within  a 
few  years  it  will  be  covered  by  the  growing  tissue. 

''The  inner  ends  of  the  rods  in  the  two 
branches  may  be  connected  by  a  rod  or  chain. 
The  preference  for  the  chain 
over  the  rod  attachment  is 
based  on  the  compressive 
and  tensile  stresses  which 
come  on  the  connection  dur- 
ing wind  storms.  Rod  con- 
nections are  preferred,  how- 
ever, when  rigidity  is  required, 
as  in  unions  made  close  to 
the  crotch;  but  for  tying  two 
branches  together  before 
they  have  shown  signs  of 
weakening  at  the  fork,  the 
chain  may  best  be  used,  as 
the  point  of  attachment  may 
be  placed  some  distance  from  the  crotch,  where  the  flexibility 
factor  will  be  important  and  the  strain  comparatively  small. 
Elms  in  an  advanced  stage  of  maturity,  if  subjected  to  severe 
climatic  conditions,  often  show  this  tendency  to  split.     These 


168.  The  proper 
way  to  saw  off 
a  large  limb. 
A  cut  is  first 
made  on  the 
under  side  to 
prevent  split- 
ting down  ; 
then  it  is  cut 
on  the  upper 
side.  Then 
the  entire 
"stub  "  is  re- 
moved close  to 
the  trunk. 


169.  A  weak-bodied 
young  tree  well 
supported ;  pad- 
ding is  i^laced  un- 
der the  bandages. 


v//'ft'       vl' 


170.  The  wrong  way 
of  attaching  a  guy 
rope. 


171.  An  allowable 
way  of  attach- 
ing a  guy  rope. 


172.  The  best  way 
of  attaching  a 
guy  rope,  if  a  tree 
must  be  used  as 
support. 


THE  HANDLING   OF   THE  PLANTS 


161 


trees,  especially, 
should  be  carefully 
inspected  and 
means  taken  to  pre- 
serve them,  by  bolt- 
ing if  necessary." 

The  illustrations, 
Figs.  164-173,  are 
self-explanatory, 
and    show    poor 


173.   A  method  of  saving  valuable  trees  along  streets 
on  which  heavy  lowering  of  grade  has  been  made. 

practice  and  good  practice  in  the  care  of  trees. 


The  grafting  of  plants. 

Grafting  is  the  operation  of  inserting  a  piece  of  a  plant  into 
another  plant  with  the  intention  that  it  shall  grow.  It  differs 
from  the  making  of  cuttings  in  the  fact  that  the  severed  part 
grows  in  another  plant  rather  than  in  the  soil. 

There  are  two  general  kinds  of  grafting  —  one  of  which 
inserts  a  piece  of  branch  in  the  stock  (grafting  proper),  and 
one  which  inserts  only  a  bud  with  little  or  no  wood  attached 
(budding).  In  both  cases  the  success  of  the  operation  depends 
on  the  growing  together  of  the  cambium  of  the  cion  (or  cutting) 
and  that  of  the  stock.  The  cambium  is  the  new  and  growing 
tissue  lying  underneath  the  bark  and  on  the  outside  of  the 
growing  wood.  Therefore,  the  line  of  demarcation  between 
the  bark  and  the  wood  should  coincide  when  the  cion  and 
stock  are  joined. 

The  plant  on  which  the  severed  piece  is  set  is  called  the  stock. 
The  part  which  is  removed  and  set  into  the  stock  is  called  a 
cion  if  it  is  a  piece  of  a  branch,  or  a  ''bud"  if  it  is  only  a  single 
bud  with  a  bit  of  tissue  attached. 

The  greater  part  of  grafting  and  budding  is  performed  when 
the  cion  or  bud  is  nearly  or  quite  dormant.  That  is,  grafting 
is  usually  done  late  in  winter  and  early  in  spring,  and  budding 


152 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


may  be  performed  then,  or  late  in  summer,  when  the  buds  have 

nearly  or  quite  matured. 

The  chief  object  of  grafting  is  to  perpetuate 
a  kind  of  plant  which  will  not  reproduce  itself 
from  seed,  or  of  which  seed  is  very  difficult  to 
obtain.  Cions  or  buds  are  therefore  taken  from 
this  plant  and  set  into  whatever  kind  of  plant 
is  obtainable  on  which  they  will  grow.  Thus, 
if  one  wants  to  propagate  the  Baldwin  apple,  he 
does  not  for  that  purpose  sow  seeds  thereof,  but 
takes  cions  or  buds  from  a  Baldwin  tree  and 
grafts  them  into  some  other  apple  tree.  The 
stocks  are  usually  obtained  from  seeds.  In  the 
case  of  the  apple,  young  plants  are  raised  from 
seeds  which  are  secured  mostly  from  cider  fac- 
tories, without  reference  to  the  variety  from 
which  they  came.  When  the  seedlings  have 
grown  to  a  certain  age,  they  are  budded  or 
grafted,  the  grafted  part  making  the  entire  top 
of  the  tree;  and  the  top  bears  fruit  like  that  of 
the  tree  from  which  the  cions  were  taken. 

There  are  many  ways  in  which  the  union  be- 
tween cion  and  stock  is  made.  Budding  may 
be  first  discussed.  It  consists  in  inserting  a 
bud  underneath  the  bark  of  the  stock,  and  the 
commonest  practice  is  that  which  is  shown  in 
the  illustrations.  Budding  is  mostly  performed 
in  July,  August,  and  early  September,  when  the 
bark  is  still  loose  or  in  condition  to  peel.  Twigs 
are  cut  from  the  tree  which  it  is  desired  to  prop- 

174.  Budding,  ^gate,  and  the  buds  are  cut  off  with  a  sharp 
The  "bud";  knife,  a  shield-shaped  bit  of  bark  (with  possibly 
toLXettI  a  little  wood)  being  left  with  them  (Fig.^  174). 
the  bud  tied.     The  bud  is  then  shoved  into  a  slit  made  in  the 


THE  HANDLING   OF   THE  PLANTS  163 

stock,  and  it  is  held  in  place  by  tying  with  a  soft  strand.  In  two 
or  three  weeks  the  bud  will  have  ''stuck"  (that  is,  it  will  have 
grown  fast  to  the  stock),  and  the  strand  is  cut  to  prevent  its 
strangling  the  stock.  Ordinarily  the  bud  does  not  grow  until 
the  following  spring,  at  which  time  the  entire  stock  or  branch 
in  which  the  bud  is  inserted  is  cut  off  an  inch  above  the  bud; 
and  the  bud  thereby  receives  all  the  energy  of  the  stock.  Bud- 
ding is  the  commonest  grafting  operation  in  nurseries.  Seeds 
of  peaches  may  be  sown  in  spring,  and  the  plants  which  result 
will  be  ready  for  budding  that  same  August.  The 
following  spring,  or  a  year  from  the  planting  of  the 
seed,  the  stock  is  cut  off  just  above  the  bud  (which 
is  inserted  near  the  ground),  and  in  the  fall  of  that 
year  the  tree  is  ready  for  sale;  that  is,  the  top  is  one 
season  old  and  the  root  is  two  seasons  old,  but  in  the 
trade  it  is  known  as  a  one-year-old  tree.  In  the 
Souoh,  the  peach  stock  may  be  budded  in  June  or 
early  July  of  the  year  in  which  the  seed  is  planted, 
and  the' bud  grows  into  a  saleable  tree  the  same 
year:  this  is  known  as  June  budding.  In  apples  ^^^  whip- 
and  pears  the  stock  is  usually  two  years  old  before  graft, 
it  is  budded,  and  the  tree  is  not  sold  until  the  top  has  grown 
two  or  three  years.  Budding  may  be  performed  also  in  the 
spring,  in  which  case  the  bud  will  grow  the  same  season. 
Budding  is  always  done  on  young  growths,  preferably  on  those 
not  more  than  one  year  old. 

Grafting  is  the  insertion  of  a  small  branch  (or  cion),  usually 
bearing  more  than  one  bud.  If  grafting  is  emploj^ed  on  small 
stocks,  it  is  customary  to  employ  the  whip-graft  (Fig.  175). 
Both  stock  and  cion  are  cut  across  diagonally,  and  a  split  made 
in  each,  so  that  one  fits  into  the  other.  The  graft  is  tied  securely 
with  a  string,  and  then,  if  it  is  above  ground,  it  is  also  waxed 
carefully. 

In  larger  limbs  or  stocks,  the  common  method  is  to  employ 


154 


MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 


the  cleft-graft  (Fig.  176).  This  consists  in  cutting  off  the 
stock,  splitting  it,  and  inserting  a  wedge-shaped  cion  in  one  or 
both  sides  of  the  split,  taking  care  that  the  cambium  layer  of 
the  cion  matches  that  of  the  stock.  The  exposed  surfaces  are 
then  securely  covered  with  wax. 

Grafting  is  usually  performed  early  in  the  spring,  just  before 
the  buds  swell.  The  cions  should  have  been  cut  before  this 
time,  when  they  were  perfectly  dormant.  Cions  may  be  stored 
in  sand  in  the  cellar  or  in  the  ice-house,  or  they 
may  be  buried  in  the  field.  The  object  is  to 
keep  them  fresh  and  dormant  until  they  are 
wanted. 

If  it  is  desired  to  change  the  top  of  an  old  plum, 
apple,  or  pear  tree  to  some  other  variety,  it  is 
usually  accomplished  by  means  of  the  cleft-graft. 
If  the  tree  is  very  young,  budding  or  whip-graft- 
ing may  be  employed.  On  an  old  top  the  cions 
should  begin  to  bear  when  three  to  four  years  old. 
All  the  main  limbs  should  be  grafted.  It  is  im- 
^^^DefOTe*  wTx-  Po^'t'^n^  ^o  keep  down  the  suckers  or  watersprouts 
ing.  from  around  the  grafts,  and  part  of  the  remaining 

top  should  be  cut  away  each  year  until  the  top  is  entirely 
changed  over  (which  will  result  in  two  to  four  years). 

A  good  wax  for  covering  the  exposed  parts  is  described  in 
the  footnote  on  page  145. 

Keeping  records  of  the  plantation. 

If  one  has  a  large  and  valuable  collection  of  fruit  or  orna- 
mental plants,  it  is  desirable  that  he  have  some  permanent 
record  of  them.  The  most  satisfactory  method  is  to  label  the 
plants,  and  then  to  make  a  chart  or  map  on  which  the  various 
plants  are  indicated  in  their  proper  positions.  The  labels  are 
always  liable  to  be  lost  and  to  become  illegible,  and  they  are 
often  misplaced  by  careless  workmen  or  mischievous  boys. 


THE  HANDLING   OF   THE  PLANTS 


155 


7 


177.   The  common 
stake  label. 


For  vegetables,  annuals,  and  other  temporary  plants,  the  best 
labels  are  simple  stakes,  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  177.  Garden 
stakes  a  foot  long,  an  inch  wide,  and  three-eighths  inch  thick 
may  be  bought  of  label  manufacturers  for 
three  to  five  dollars  a  thousand.  These  take 
a  soft  pencil  very  readily,  and  if  the  labels  are 
taken  up  in  the  fall  and  stored  in  a  dry  place, 
they  will  last  two  or  three  years. 

For  more  permanent  herbaceous  plants,  as 
rhubarb  and  asparagus,  or  even  for  bushes,  a 
stake  that  is  sawed  from  clear  pine  or  cypress, 
eighteen  inches  long,  three  inches  wide,  and  an 
inch  or  more  thick,  affords  a  most  excellent 
label.  The  lower  end  of  the  stake  is  sawed  to 
a  point,  and  is  dipped  in  coal  tar  or  creosote, 
or  other  preservative.  The  top  of  the  stake  is  painted  white, 
and  the  legend  is  written  with  a  large  and  soft  pencil.  When 
the  writing  becomes  illegible  or  the  stake  is  needed  for  other 
plants,  a  shaving  is  taken  off  the  face  of  the 
label  with  a  plane,  a  fresh  coat  of  paint  added, 
and  the  label  is  as  good  as  ever.  These  labels 
are  strong  enough  to  withstand  shocks  from 
whiffletrees  and  tools,  and  should  last  ten 
years. 

Whenever  a  legend  is  written  with  a  lead 
pencil,  it  is  advisable  to  use  the  pencil  when 
the  paint  (which  should  be  white  lead)  is  still 
fresh  or  soft.  Figure  178  shows  a  very  good  device  for  preserv- 
ing the  writing  on  the  face  of  the  label.  A  block  of  wood  is 
secured  to  the  label  by  means  of  a  screw,  covering  the  legend 
completely  and  protecting  it  from  the  weather. 

If  more  ornamental  stake  labels  are  desired,  various  types  can 
be  bought  in  the  market,  or  one  can  be  made  after  the  fashion 
of  Fig.  179.     This  is  a  zinc  plate  that  can  be  painted  black,  on 


178.  A  good  stake 
label,  with  the  leg- 
end covered. 


156 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


which  the  name  is  written  with  white  paint.  Many  persons, 
however,  prefer  to  paint  the  zinc  white,  and  .write  or  stamp  the 
label  with  black  ink  or  black  type.  Two  strong  wire  legs  are 
soldered  to  the  label,  and  these  prevent  it  from  turning  around. 
These  labels  are,  of  course,  much  more  expensive  than  the 
ordinary  stake  labels,  and  are  usually  not  so  satisfactory,  al- 
though more  attractive. 

For  labeling  trees,  various  kinds  of  zinc  tallies  are  in  common 

use,  as  shown  in  Figs.  180  and  181.    Fresh  zinc  takes  a  lead  pencil 

readily,  and  the  writing  often  becomes  more 

legible  as  it  becomes  older,  and  it  will  usually 


i,f:m. 


179.     Metal  stake 
label. 


181.   Common  zinc 
tally. 


remain  three  or  four  years.  These  labels  are  attached  either  by 
wires,  as  a,  h,  Fig.  180,  or  they  are  wound  about  the  limb  as 
shown  in  c,  d,  and  e,  in  Fig.  180.  The  type  of  zinc  label  most  in 
use  is  a  simple  strip  of  zinc,  as  shown  in  Fig.  181,  wrapped  about 
the  limb.  The  metal  is  so  flexible  that  it  expands  readily  with 
the  growth  of  the  branch.  While  these  zinc  labels  are  durable, 
they  are  very  inconspicuous  because  of  their  neutral  color,  and 
it  is  often  difficult  to  find  them  in  dense  masses  of  foliage. 

The  common  wooden  label  of  the  nurserymen  (Fig.  182)  is 
perhaps  as  useful  as  any  for  general  purposes.  If  the  label  has 
had  a  light  coat  of  thin  white  lead,  and  the  legend  has  been  made 


1 


THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  PLANTS 


157 


182.  A  common 
nursery  label. 


with  a  soft  lead  pencil,  the  writing  should  remain  legible  four  or 
five  years.  Fig.  183  shows  another  type  of  label  that  is  more 
durable,  since  the  wire  is  stiff  and  large,  and  is 
secured  around  the  limb  by  means  of  pincers. 
The  large  loop  allows  the 
limb  to  expand,  and  the 
stiff  wire  prevents  the 
misplacing  of  the  label 
by  winds  and  workmen. 
The  tally  itself  is  what 
is  known  as  the  "  pack- 
age label "  of  the  nursery- 
men, being  six  inches 
long,  one  and  one-fourth 
inches  wide,  and  costing 
(painted)  less  than  one 
and  one-half  dollars  a 
thousand.  The  legend  is  made  with  a 
lead  pencil  when  the   paint  is  fresh, 

and  sometimes  the  label  is  dipped  in 
thin  white  lead  after  the  writing  is 
made,  so  that  the  paint  covers  the 
^vriting  with  a  very  thin  protecting 
coat.  A  similar  label  is  shown  in  Fig. 
184,  which  has  a  large  wire  loop,  with 
a  coil,  to  allow  the  expansion  of  the  limb. 

The  tallies  of  this  type  are  often  made  of  glass,  or  porcelain 
with  the  name  indelibly  printed  in 
them.  Figure  185  shows  a  zinc  tally, 
which  is  secured  to  the  tree  by  means 
of  a  sharp  and  pointed  wire  driven  into 
the  wood.  Some  prefer  to  have  two  arms  to  this  wire,  driving 
one  point  on  either  side  of  the  tree.  If  galvanized  wire  is 
used,  these  labels  will  last  for  many  years. 


183.   Cornell  tree  label. 


184.   Serviceable     large-loop 
tree  label. 


^J,^^\^Vv>A.| 


185.   Zinc  tree  label. 


158 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


It  is  very  important,  when  adjusting  labels  to  trees,  to  be  sure 
that  the  wire  is  not  twisted  tight  against  the  wood.  Figure  186 
shows  the  injury  that  is  Hkely  to  result  from 
label  wires.  When  a  tree  is  constricted  or 
girdled,  it  is  very  liable  to  be  broken  off  by 
winds.  It  should  be  a  rule  to  attach  the  label 
to  a  limb  of  minor  importance,  so  that  if  the 
wire  should  injure  the  part,  the  loss  will  not  be 
serious.  When  the  label.  Fig.  182,  is  applied, 
only  the  tips  of  the  wire  should  be  twisted 
186   inur    b  ^  a    ^og^ther,  leaving  a  large  loop  for  the  expansion 

tight  label  wire.       of  the  limb. 

The  storing  of  fruits  and  vegetables. 

The  principles  involved  in  the  storing  of  perishable  products, 
as  fruits  and  vegetables,  differ  with  the  different  commodities. 
All  the  root-crops,  and  most 
fruits,  need  to  be  kept  in  a 
cool,  moist,  and  uniform  tem- 
perature if  they  are  to  be  pre- 
served a  great  length  of  time. 
Squashes,  sweet-potatoes,  and 
some  other  things  need  to  be 
kept  in  an  intermediate  and 
what  might  be  called  a  high 
temperature;  and  the  atmosphere  should  be  drier  than  for  most 
other  products.  The  low  temperature  has  the  effect  of  arresting 
decomposition  and  the  work  of  fungi  and  bacteria.  The  moist 
atmosphere  has  the  effect  of  preventing  too  great  evaporation 
and  the  consequent  shriveling. 

In  the  storing  of  any  commodity,  it  is  very  important  that 
the  product  is  in  proper  condition  for  keeping.  Discard  all 
specimens  that  are  bruised  or  are  likely  to  decay.  Much  of 
the  decay  of  fruits  and  vegetables  in  storage  is  not  the  fault  of 


187.  The  old-fashioned  "outdoor 
cellar, "  still  a  very  useful  and  con- 
venient storage  place. 


THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  PLANTS 


159 


the  storage  process,  but  is  really  the  work  of  diseases  with  which 
the  materials  are  infected  before  they  are  put  into  storage. 
For  example,  if  potatoes  and  cabbages  are  affected  with  the 
rot,  it  is  practically  impossible  to  keep  them  any  length  of  time. 

Apples,  winter  pears,  and  all  roots,  should  be  kept  at  a  tem- 
perature somewhat  near  the  freezing  point.  It  should  not 
rise  above  40°  F.  for  best  results.  Apples  can  be  kept 
even  at  one  or  two  degrees  below  the  freezing  point  if  the  tem- 
perature is  uniform.  Cellars  in  which  there  are  heaters  are 
likely  to  be  too  dry  and 
the  temperature  too  high. 
In  such  places  it  is  well 
to  keep  fresh  vegetables 
and  fruits  in  tight  re- 
ceptacles, and  pack  the 
roots  in  sand  or  moss  in 
order  to  prevent  shrivel- 
ing. In  these  places, 
apples  usually  keep  better 
if  headed  up  in  barrels 
than  if  kept  on  racks  or 
shelves.  In  moist  and  cool  cellars,  however,  it  is  preferable  for 
the  home  supply  to  place  them  on  shelves,  not  piling  them  more 
than  five  or  six  inches  deep,  for  then  they  can  be  sorted  over  as 
occasion  requires.  In  case  of  fruits,  be  sure  that  the  specimens 
are  not  over-ripe  when  placed  in  storage.  If  apples  are  allowed 
to  lie  in  the  sun  for  a  few  days  before  being  packed,  they  will 
ripen  so  much  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  keep  them. 

Cabbages  should  be  kept  at  a  low  and  uniform  temperature, 
and  water  should  be  drained  away  from  them.  They  are 
stored  in  many  ways  in  the  field,  but  success  depends  so  much 
on  the  season,  particular  variety,  ripeness,  and  the  freedom 
from  injuries  by  fungi  and  insects,  that  uniform  results  are 
rarely  secured  by  any  one  method.     The  best  results  are  to  be 


188.  Lean-to  fruit  cellar,  covered  with  earth. 
The  roof  should  be  of  cement  or  stone 
slabs.    Provide  a  ventilator. 


160 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


expected  when  they  can  be  kept  in  a  house  built  for  the  purpose, 
in  which  the  temperature  is  uniform  and  the  air  fairly  moist. 
When  stored  out  of  doors,  they  are  likely  to  freeze  and  thaw 
alternately;  and  if  the  water  runs  into  the  heads,  mischief 
results.  Sometimes  they  are  easily  stored  by  being  piled  into 
a  conical  heap  on  well-drained  soil  and  covered  with  dry  straw, 


SAWDUBT 


189.   A  fruit  storage  house  cooled  by  ice. 


and  the  straw  covered  with  boards.  It  does  not  matter  if 
they  are  frosted,  provided  they  do  not  thaw  out  frequently. 
Sometimes  cabbages  are  laid  head  down  in  a  shallow  furrow 
plowed  in  well-drained  land,  and  over  them  is  thrown  straw, 
the  stumps  being  allowed  to  project  through  the  cover.  It  is 
only  in  winters  of  rather  uniform  temperature  that  good  results 
are  to  be  expected  from  such  methods.  These  are  some  of  the 
main  considerations  involved  in  the  storing  of  such  things  as 
cabbage;  the  subject  is  mentioned  again  in  the  discussion  of 
cabbage  on  page  470;  also  pages  513,  515. 


XI.   The  rock-garden,  in  a  rear  place. 


THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  PLANTS  161 

In  the  storing  of  all  products,  especially  those  wliich  have 
soft  and  green  matter,  as  cabbages,  it  is  well  to  provide  against 
the  heating  of  the  produce.  If  the  things  are  buried  out  of 
doors,  it  is  important  to  put  on  a  very  light  cover  at  first  so 
that  the  heat  may  escape.  Cover  them  gradually  as  the  cold 
weather  comes  on.  This  is  important  with  all  vegetables  that 
are  placed  in  pits,  as  potatoes,  beets,  ^nd  the  like.  If  covered 
deeply  at  once,  they  are  likely  to  heat  and  rot.  All  pits  made 
out  of  doors  should  be  on  well-drained  and  preferably  sandy 
land. 

When  vegetables  are  wanted  at  intervals  during  the  winter 
from  pits,  it  is  well  to  make  compartment  pits,  each  compart- 
ment holding  a  wagon  load  or  whatever  quantity  will  be  likely 
to  be  wanted  at  each  time.  These  pits  are  sunk  in  well-drained 
land,  and  between  each  of  the  two  pits  is  left  a  wall  of  earth 
about  a  foot  thick.  One  pit  can  then  be  emptied  in  cold  weather 
without  interfering  with  the  others. 

An  outside  cellar  is  better  than  a  house  cellar  in  which  there 
is  a  heater,  but  it  is  not  so  handy.  If  it  is  near  the  house,  it 
need  not  be  inconvenient,  however.  A  house  is  usually  healthier 
if  the  cellar  is  not  used  for  storage.  House  cellars  used  for 
storage  should  have  a  ventilating  shaft. 

Some  of  the  principles  involved  in  an  ice-cooled  storage  house 
are  explained  in  the  diagram.  Fig.  189.  If  the  reader  desires 
to  make  a  careful  study  of  storage  and  storage  structures, 
he  should  consult  cyclopedias  and  special  articles. 

The  forcing  of  plants. 

There  are  three  general  means  (aside  from  greenhouses)  of 
forcing  plants  ahead  of  their  season  in  the  early  spring  —  by 
means  of  forcing-hills  and  hand-boxes,  by  coldframes,  and  by 
hotbeds. 

The  forcing-hill  is  an  arrangement  by  means  of  which  a  single 
plant  or  a  single  ''hill"  of  plants  may  be  forced  where  it  per* 


161 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


manently  stands.  This  type  of  forcing  may  be  applied  to  per- 
ennial plants,  as  rhubarb  and  asparagus,  or  to  annuals,  as  melons 
and  cucumbers. 

In  Fig.  190  is  illustrated  a  common  method  of  hastening  the 
growth  of  rhubarb  in  the  spring.  A  box  with  four  removable 
sides,  two  of  which  are  shown  in  end  section 
in  the  figure,  is  placed  around  the  plant  in 
the  fall.  The  inside  of  the  box  is  filled 
with  straw  or  litter,  and  the  outside  is 
banked  thoroughly  with  any  refuse,  to  pre- 
vent the  ground  from  freezing.  When  it  is 
desired  to  start  the  plants,  the  covering  is 
removed  from  both  the  inside  and  outside 
of  the  box  and  hot  manure  is  piled  around 
If  the  weather  is  yet  cold,  dry  light  leaves 
or  straw  may  be  placed  inside  the  box;  or  a  pane  or  sash  of 
glass  may  be  placed  on  top  of  the  box,  when  it  will  become 
a  coldframe.  Rhubarb,  asparagus,  sea-kale,  and  similar  plants 
may  be  advanced  two  or  four  weeks  by  means  of  this  method 


190.    Forcing-hill  for 
rhubarb. 

the  box  to  its  top. 


191.    Forcing-hill,  and  the  mold  or  frame  for  making  it. 


of  forcing.  Some  gardeners  use  old  barrels  or  half-barrels  in 
place  of  the  box.  The  box,  however,  is  better  and  handier, 
and  the  sides  can  be  stored  for  future  use. 

Plants  that  require  a  long  season  in  which  to  mature,  and 
which  do  not  transplant  readily,  as  melons  and  cucumbers,  may 
be  planted  in  forcing-hills  in  the  field.  One  of  these  hills  is 
shown  in  Fig.  191.  The  frame  or  mold  is  shown  at  the  left. 
This  mold  is  a  box  with  flaring  sides  and  no  top  or  bottom,  and 


THE  HANDLING   OF   THE  PLANTS  163 

provided  with  a  handle.  This  frame  is  placed  with  the  small 
end  down  at  the  point  where  the  seeds  are  to  be  planted,  and 
the  earth  is  hilled  up  about  it  and  firmly  packed  with  the  feet. 
The  mold  is  then  withdrawn,  and  a  pane  of  glass  is  laid  upon  the 
top  of  the  mound  to  concentrate  the  sun's  rays,  and  to  prevent 
the  bank  from  washing  down  with  the  rains.  A  clod  of  earth 
or  a  stone  may  be  placed  upon  the  pane  to  hold  it  down. 
Sometimes  a  brick  is  used  as  a  mold.  This  type  of  forcing-hill 
is  not  much  used,  because  the  bank  of  earth  is  liable  to  be  washed 
away,  and  heavy  rain  coming  when  the  glass  is  off  will  fill  the 
hill  with  water  and  drown  the  plant.  However,  it  can  be  used 
to  very  good  advantage  when  the  gar- 
dener can  give  it  close  attention. 

A  forcing-hill  is  sometimes  made  by 
digging  a  hole  in  the  ground  and  plant- 
ing the  seeds  in  the  bottom  of  it,  plac- 
ing the  pane  of  glass  upon  a  slight  ridge 
or  mound  which  is  made  on  the  sur-  ^^^-  Hand-box. 

face  of  the  ground.  This  method  is  less  desirable  than  the 
other,  because  the  seeds  are  placed  in  the  poorest  and  coldest 
soil,  and  the  hole  is  very  likely  to  fill  with  water  in  the  early 
days  of  spring. 

An  excellent  type  of  forcing-hill  is  made  by  the  use  of  the 
hand-box,  as  shown  in  Fig.  192.  This  is  a  rectangular  box, 
without  top  or  bottom,  and  a  pane  of  glass  is  slipped  into  a  groove 
at  the  top.  It  is  really  a  miniature  coldframe.  The  earth  is 
banked  up  slightly  about  the  box,  in  order  to  hold  it  against 
winds  and  to  prevent  the  water  from  running  into  it.  If  these 
boxes  are  made  of  good  lumber  and  painted,  they  will  last  for 
many  years.  Any  size  of  glass  may  be  used  which  is  desired, 
but  a  ten-by-twelve  pane  is  as  good  as  any  for  general  purposes. 

After  the  plants  are  thoroughly  established  in  these  forcing- 
hills,  and  the  weather  is  settled,  the  protection  is  wholly  removed, 
and  the  plants  grow  normally  in  the  open. 


164  MANUAL   OF  GARDENING 

A  very  good  temporary  protection  may  be  given  to  tender 
plants  by  using  four  panes  of  glass,  as  explained  in  Fig.  193,  the 
two  inner  panes  being  held  together  at  the  top  by  a  block  of 
wood  through  which  four  nails  are  driven.  Plants  are  more 
likely  to  burn  in  these  glass  frames  than  in  the  hand-boxes,  and 
such  frames  are  not  so  well  adapted  to  the  protection  of  plants 

in  very  early  spring;  but  they  are  often 

useful  for  special  purposes. 

In  all  forcing-hills,  as  in  coldframes  and 

hotbeds,  it  is  exceedingly  important  that 

the  plants  receive  plenty  of  air  on  bright 
,^^    ^,      ,     .     ,  .„      days.     Plants  that  are  kept  too  close  be- 

193.    Glass  forcing-hill.  -^  ^         u  ^  ,,         fi  ^         ^  -t 

come  weak  or  drawn,  and  lose  the  abihty 
to  withstand  changes  of  weather  when  the  protection  is  re- 
moved. Even  though  the  wind  is  cold  and  raw,  the  plants 
inside  the  frames  ordinarily  will  not  suffer  if  the  glass  is 
taken  off  when  the  sun  is  shining. 

Coldframes. 

A  coldframe  is  nothing  more  than  an  enlarged  hand-box; 
that  is,  instead  of  protecting  but  a  single  plant  or  a  single  hill 
with  a  single  pane  of  glass,  the  frame  is  covered  with  sash,  and 
is  large  enough  to  accommodate  many  plants. 

There  are  three  general  purposes  for  which  a  coldframe  is 
used:  For  the  starting  of  plants  early  in  spring;  for  receiving 
partially  hardened  plants  that  have  been  started  earlier  in 
hotbeds  and  forcing-houses;  for  wintering  young  cabbages, 
lettuce,  and  other  hardy  plants  that  are  sown  in  the  fall. 

Coldframes  are  ordinarily  placed  near  the  buildings,  and  the 
plants  are  transplanted  into  the  field  when  settled  weather 
comes.  Sometimes,  however,  they  are  made  directly  in  the 
field  where  the  plants  are  to  remain,  and  the  frames,  and  not 
the  plants,  are  removed.  When  used  for  this  latter  purpose, 
the  frames  are  made  very  cheap  by  running  two  rows  of  parallel 


THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  PLANTS 


166 


planks  through  the  field  at  a  distance  apart  of  six  feet.  The 
plank  on  the  north  is  ordinarily  ten  to  twelve  inches  wide,  and 
that  on  the  south  eight  to  ten  inches.  These  planks  are  held 
in  place  by  stakes,  and  the  sashes  are  laid  across 
them.  Seeds  of  radishes,  beets,  lettuce,  and  the 
like,  are  then  sown  beneath  the  sash,  and  when 
settled  weather  arrives,  the  sash  and  planks  are 
removed  and  the  plants  are  growing  naturally 
in  the  field.  Half-hardy  plants,  as  those 
mentioned,  may  be  started  fully  two  or 
three  weeks  in  advance  of  the 
normal  season  by  this  means. 

One  of  the  simplest  types  of 
coldframes  is  shown  in  Fig.  194, 
which  is  a  lean-to  against  the 
foundation  of  a  house.  A  sill  is 
run  just  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  the  sashes,  shown  at 
D,  are  laid  on  rafters  which  run  from  this  sill  to  the  sill  of  the 
house,  A.  If  this  frame  is  on  the  south  side  of  the  building, 
plants  may  be  started  even  as 
early  as  a  month  before  the  open- 
ing of  the  season.  Such  lean-to 
frames  are  sometimes  made  against 
greenhouses  or  warm  cellars,  and 
heat  is  supphed  to  them  by  the 
opening  of  a  door  in  the  wall,  as 
at  B.  In  frames  that  are  in  such 
sunny  positions  as  these,  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly important  that  care  be 
taken  to  remove  the  sash,  or  at  least  to  give  ample  ventilation, 
in  all  sunny  days. 

A  different  type  of  lean-to  structure  is  shown  in  Fig.  195. 
This  may  be  either  a  temporary  or  permanent  building,  and 


194.  Coldframe  against 
a  building.  Plants 
at  E;  sill  of  house  at 
A;  basement  oiDen- 
ing  at  B. 


195.   Weather     screen,    or    cold- 
frame,  against  a  building. 


166 


MANUAL   OF  GARDENING 


it  is  generally  used 
for  the  protection 
of  half-hardy  plants 
that  are  grown  in 
pots  and  tubs.  It 
may  be  used,  how- 
ever, for  the  pur- 
pose of  forwarding 
pot-plants  early  in 
the  spring  and  for 
the  protection  of 
peaches,  grapes, 
oranges,  or  other  fruits  in  tubs  or  boxes.  If  it  is  desired 
merely  to  protect  the  plants  through  the  winter,  it  is  best 


[96.  A  pit  or  coldframe  on  permanent  walls,  and  a 
useful  adjunct  to  a  garden.  The  rear  cover  is 
open  (a). 


197.   The  usual  form  of  coldframe. 


to  have  the  structure  on  the  north  side  of  the  building,  in 
order  that  the  sun  may  not  force  the  plants  into  activity. 

Another  structure  that  may  be  used  both  to  carry  half-hardy 
plants  over  winter  and 
for  starting  plants  early 
in  spring  is  shown  in  Fig. 
196.  It  is  really  a  mini- 
ature greenhouse  without 
heat.     It  is  well  adapted 

for   mild    climates.       The  19S.   a  strong  and  durable  frame. 


THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  PLANTS 


167 


picture  was  made  from  a  structure  in  the  coast  region  of  North 
CaroHna. 

The  common  type  of  coldframe  is  shown  in  Fig.  197.     It  is 


^M 


-^--^-^^^r^  X'^'^F  v^'^  /■'-■ 


199.    A   frame  yard. 


twelve  feet  long  and  six  feet  wide,  and  is  covered  with  four 

three-by-six  sash.     It  is  made  of  ordinary  lumber  loosely  nailed 

together.     If  one  expects  to  use  coldframes  or  hotbeds  every 

year,  however,  it  is  advisable  to 

make  the  frames  of  two-inch  stuff, 

well  painted,  and  to  join  the  parts 

by  bolts  and  tenons,  so  that  they 

may  be  taken  apart  and  stored 

until  needed  for  the  next  year's 

crop.      Figure    198    suggests    a 

method  of  making  frames  so  that 

they  may  be  taken  apart. 

It  is  always  advisable  to  place  coldframes  and  hotbeds  in  a  pro- 
tected place,  and  particularly  to  protect  them  from  cold  north 
winds.     Buildings  afford  excellent  protection,  but  the  sun  is 


200.   Portable  coldframe. 


168 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


sometimes  too  hot  on  the 
south  side  of  large  and 
light-colored  buildings. 
One  of  the  best  means 
of  protection  is  to  plant 
a  hedge  of  evergreens,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  199.     It  is 

201.   A  larger  portable  coldframe.  ^j^^^^  desirable,    also,    to 

place  all  the  coldframes  and  hotbeds  close  together,  for  the 
purpose  of  economizing  time  and  labor.  A  regular  area  or 
yard  may  be  set  aside 
for  this  purpose. 

Various  small  and 
portable  coldframes 
may  be  used  about  the 
garden  for  the  protec- 
tion of  tender  plants  or 

to    start    them    early    in  ^02.    a  commodious  portable  frame. 

the   spring.     Pansies,  daisies,  and   border   carnations,  for  ex- 
ample, may  be  brought  on  very  early  by  setting  such  frames 

over  them  or  by  plant- 
ing them  under  the 
frames  in  the  fall.  These 
frames  may  be  of  any 
size  desired,  and  the  sash 
may  be  either  removable,  or,  in  case  of  small  frames,  they  may 
be  hinged  at  the  top.     Figs.  200-203  illustrate  various  types. 

Hotbeds. 

A  hotbed  differs  from  a  coldframe  in  being  provided  with 
bottom  heat.  This  heat  is  ordinarily  supplied  by  means  of 
fermenting  manure,  but  it  may  be  obtained  from  other  ferment- 
ing material,  as  tanbark  or  leaves,  or  from  artificial  heat,  as 
flues,  steam  pipes,  or  water  pipes. 


203.   A  low  coldframe. 


THE  HANDLING   OF   THE  PLANTS  169 

The  hotbed  is  used  for  the  very  early  starting  of  plants; 
and  when  the  plants  have  outgrown  the  bed,  or  have  become 
too  thick,  they  are  transplanted  into  cooler  hotbeds  or  into 
coldframes.  There  are  some  crops,  however,  that  are  car- 
ried to  full  maturity  in  the  hotbed  itself,  as  radishes  and 
lettuce. 

The  date  at  which  the  hotbed  may  be  started  with  safety 
depends  almost  entirely  on  the  means  at  command  of  heating 
it  and  on  the  skill  of  the  operator.  In  the  northern  states, 
where  outdoor  gardening  does  not  begin  until  the  first  or  the 
last  of  May,  hotbeds  are  sometimes  started  as  early  as  January; 
but  they  are  ordinarily  delayed  until  early  in  March. 

The  heat  for  hotbeds  is  commonly  supplied  by  the  fermenta- 
tion of  horse  manure.  It  is  important  that  the  manure  be  as 
uniform  as  possible  in  composition  and  texture,  that  it  come 
from  highly  fed  horses,  and  is  practically  of  the  same  age.  The 
best  results  are  usually  secured  with  manure  from  livery 
stables,  from  which  it  can  be  obtained  in  large  quantities  in  a 
short  space  of  time.  Perhaps  as  much  as  one  half  of  the  whole 
material  should  be  of  litter  or  straw  that  has  been  used  in  the 
bedding. 

The  manure  is  placed  in  a  long  and  shallow  square-topped  pile, 
not  more  than  four  or  six  feet  high,  as  a  rule,  and  is  then  allowed 
to  ferment.  Better  results  are  generally  obtained  if  the  manure 
is  piled  under  cover.  If  the  weather  is  cold  and  fermentation 
does  not  start  readily,  wetting  the  pile  with  hot  water  may 
start  it.  The  first  fermentation  is  nearly  always  irregular; 
that  is,  it  begins  unequally  in  several  places  in  the  pile.  In  order 
to  make  the  fermentation  uniform,  the  pile  must  be  turned  oc- 
casionally, taking  care  to  break  up  all  hard  lumps  and  to  dis- 
tribute the  hot  manure  throughout  the  mass.  It  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  turn  the  pile  five  or  six  times  before  it  is  finally 
used,  although  half  this  number  of  turnings  is  ordinarily  suffi- 
cient.    When  the  pile  is  steaming  uniformly  throughout,  it  is 


170  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

placed  in  the  hotbed,  and  is  covered  with  the  earth  in  which 
the  plants  are  to  be  grown. 

Hotbed  frames  are  sometimes  set  on  top  of  the  pile  of  fer- 
menting manure,  as  shown  in  Fig.  204.  The  manure  should 
extend  some  distance  beyond  the  edges  of  the  frame;  other- 
wise the  frame  will  become  too  cold  about  the  outside,  and  the 
plants  will  suffer. 

It  is  preferable,  however,  to  have  a  pit  beneath  the  frame 
in  which  the  manure  is  placed.     If  the  bed  is  to  be  started  in 


204.   Hotbed  with  manure  on  top  of  the  ground. 

midwinter  or  very  early  in  the  spring,  it  is  advisable  to  make 
this  pit  in  the  fall  and  to  fill  it  with  straw  or  other  litter  to 
prevent  the  earth  from  freezing  deep.  When  it  is  time  to  make 
the  bed,  the  litter  is  thrown  out,  and  the  ground  is  warm  and 
ready  to  receive  the  fermenting  manure.  The  pit  should  be 
a  foot  wider  on  either  side  than  the  width  of  the  frame. 
Fig.  205  is  a  cross-section  of  such  a  hotbed  pit.  Upon  the 
ground  a  layer  of  an  inch  or  two  of  any  coarse  material  is  placed 
to  keep  the  manure  off  the  cold  earth.  Upon  this,  from  twelve 
to  thirty  inches  of  manure  is  placed.  Above  the  manure  is  a 
thin  layer  of  leafmold  or  some  porous  material,  that  will  serve 
as  a  distributor  of  the  heat,  and  above  this  is  four  or  five  inches 
of  soft  garden  loam,  in  which  the  plants  are  to  be  grown. 


THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  PLANTS 


171 


It  is  advisable  to  place  the  manure  in  the  pit  in  layers,  each 
stratum  to  be  thoroughly  trodden  down  before  another  one  is 
put  in.  These  layers  should  be  four  to  eight  inches  in  thickness. 
By  this  means  the  mass  is  easily  made  uniform  in  consistency. 
Manure  that  has  too  much  straw  for  the  best  results,  and  which 
will  therefore  soon  part  with  its  heat,  will  spring  up  quickly 
when  the  pressure  of  the  feet  is  removed.     Manure  that  has 


205    Section  of  a  hotbed  built  with  a  pit 


too  little  straw,  and  which  therefore  will  not  heat  well  or  will 
spend  its  heat  quickly,  will  pack  down  into  a  soggy  mass  under- 
neath the  feet.  When  the  manure  has  sufficient  litter,  it  will 
give  a  springy  feeling  to  the  feet  as  a  person  walks  over  it,  but 
will  not  fluff  up  when  the  pressure  is  removed.  The  quantity 
of  manure  to  be  used  will  depend  on  its  quality,  and  also  on  the 
season  in  which  the  hotbed  is  made.  The  earlier  the  bed  is 
made,  the  larger  should  be  the  quantity  of  manure.  Hotbeds 
that  are  intended  to  hold  for  two  months  should  have  about  two 
feet  of  manure,  as  a  rule. 

The  manure  will  ordinarily  heat  very  vigorously  for  a  few 
days  after  it  is  placed  in  the  bed.     A  soil  thermometer  should  be 


172 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


thrust  through  the  earth  down  to  the  manure,  and  the  frame 
kept  tightly  closed.  When  the  temperature  is  passing  below 
90°,  seeds  of  the  warm  plants,  like  tomatoes,  may  be  sown,  and 
when  it  passes  below  80°  or  70°,  the  seeds  of  cooler  plants  may 
be  sown. 

If  hotbeds  are  to  be  used  every  year,  permanent  pits  should  be 
provided  for  them.  Pits  are  made  from  two  to  three  feet  deep, 
preferably  the  former  depth,  and  are  walled  up  with  stone  or 
brick.  It  is  important  that  they  be  given  good  drainage  from 
below.     In  the  summer-time,  after  the  sash  are  stripped,  the 


tended^ 


206.   Parallel  runs  of  hotbeds  with  racks  for  holding  sashes. 

old  beds  may  be  used  for  the  growing  of  various  delicate  crops, 
as  melons  or  half-hardy  flowers.  In  this  position,  the  plants 
can  be  protected  in  the  fall.  As  already  suggested,  the  pits 
should  be  cleaned  out  in  the  fall  and  filled  with*  litter  to  facilitate 
the  work  of  making  the  new  bed  in  the  winter  or  spring . 

Various  modifications  of  the  common  type  of  hotbed  will 
suggest  themselves  to  the  operator.  The  frames  should  ordi- 
narily run  in  parallel  rows,  so  that  a  man  walking  between  them 
can  attend  to  the  ventilation  of  two  rows  of  sash  at  once.  Fig. 
206  shows  a  different  arrangement.  There  are  two  parallel  runs, 
with  walks  on  the  outside,  and  between  them  are  racks  to 
receive  the  sash  from  the  adjacent  frames.  The  sash  from 
the  left-hand  bed  are  run  to  the  right,  and  those  from  the 
right-hand  bed  are  run  to  the  left.  Running  on  racks,  the 
operator  does  not  need  to  handle  them,  and  the  breakage  of 
glass  is  therefore  less;  but  this  system  is  little  used  because 


THE  HANDLING   OF   THE  PLANTS 


173 


207.   Manure-heated  greenhouse. 


of  the  difficulty  of  reaching  the  farther  side  of  the  bed  from 
the  single  walk. 

If  the  hotbed  were  high  enough  and  broad  enough  to  allow  a 
man  to  work  inside,  we  should  have  a  forcing-house.  Such  a 
structure  is  shown  in  Fig.  207,  upon  one  side  of  which  the  manure 
and  soil  are  already  in 


place.  These  manure- 
heated  houses  are  often 
very  efficient,  and  are 
a  good  make-shift  un- 
til such  time  as  the 
gardener  can  afford  to 
put  in  flue  or  pipe  heat. 
Hotbeds  may  be 
heated  by  means  of 
steam  or  hot  water.  They  can  be  piped  from  the  heater  in 
a  dwelling-house  or  greenhouse.  Fig.  208  shows  a  hotbed  with 
two  pipes,  in  the  positions  7,  7  beneath  the  bed.  The  earth 
is  shown  at  4,  and  the  plants  (which,  in  this  case,  are  vines) 

are  growing  upon  a  rack,  at  6. 
There  are  doors  in  the  end  of 
the  house,  shown  in  2,  2,  which 
may  be  used  for  ventilation  or 
for  admitting  air  underneath 
the  beds.  The  pipes  should  not 
be  surrounded  by  earth,  but 
should  run  through  a  free  air 

208.    Pii^e-heated  hotbed.  SpaCC. 

It  would  scarcely  pay  to  put  in  a  hot  water  or  steam  heater 
for  the  express  purpose  of  heating  hotbeds,  for  if  such  an  ex- 
pense were  incurred,  it  would  be  better  to  make  a  forcing-house. 
Hotbeds  may  be  heated,  however,  with  hot-air  flues  with  very 
good  results.  A  home-made  brick  furnace  may  be  constructed 
in  a  pit  at  one  end  of  the  run  and  underneath  a  shed,  and  the 


174 


MA^WAL    OF   GARDENING 


smoke  and  hot  air,  instead  of  being  carried  directly  upwards,  is 
carried  through  a  sHghtly  rising  horizontal  pipe  that  runs 
underneath  the  beds.  For  some  distance  from  the  furnace, 
this  flue  may  be  made  of  brick  or  unvitrified  sewer  pipe,  but 
stove-pipe  may  be  used  for  the  greater  part  of  the  run.  The 
chimney  is  ordinarily  at  the  farther  end  of  the  run  of  beds.  It 
should  be  high,  in  order  to  provide  a  good  draft.  If  the  run  of 
beds  is  long,  there  should  be  a  rise  in  the  underlying  pipe  of  at 
least  one  foot  in  twenty-five.     The  greater  the  rise  in  this  pipe, 

the  more  perfect 
will  be  the  draft. 
If  the  runs  are 
not  too  long,  the 
underlying  pipe 
may  return  un- 
derneath the 
beds  and  enter  a 
chimney  directly 
over  the  back 
end  of  the  fur- 
nace, and  such  a 
chimney,  being 
warmed  from  the  furnace,  will  ordinarily  have  an  excellent 
draft.  The  underlying  pipe  should  occupy  a  free  space 
or  pit  beneath  the  beds,  and  whenever  it  lies  near  to  the 
floor  of  the  bed  or  is  very  hot,  it  should  be  covered  with 
asbestos  cloth.  While  such  flue-heated  hotbeds  may  be 
eminently  successful  with  a  grower  or  builder  of  experience,  it 
may  nevertheless  be  said,  as  a  general  statement,  that  when- 
ever such  trouble  and  expense  are  incurred,  it  is  better  to  make 
a  forcing-house.  The  subject  of  forcing-houses  and  green- 
houses is  not  discussed  in  this  book. 

The  most  satisfactory  material  for  use  in  hotbed  and  cold- 
frame  sash  is  double-thick,  second-quality  glass ;    and  panes 


209.  Useful  kinds  of  watering-pots.  Tliese  are  adapted 
to  different  uses,  as  are  different  forms  of  hoes  or 
pruning  tools. 


THE  HANDLING    OF    THE  PLANTS  175 

twelve  inches  wide  are  ordinarily  broad  enough,  and  they 
suffer  comparatively  Httle  in  breakage.  For  coldframes,  how- 
ever, various  oiled  papers  and  waterproof  cloths  may  be  used, 
particularly  for  plants  that  are  started  little  in  advance  of  the 
opening  of  the  season.  When  these  materials  are  used,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  have  expensive  sash,  but  rectangular  frames 
are  made  from  strips  of  pine  seven-eighths  inch  thick  and  two 
and  one-half  inches  wide,  halved  together  at  the  corners  and 
each  corner  reenforced  by  a  square  carriage-corner,  such  as  is 
used  by  carriage-makers  to  secure  the  corners  of  buggy  boxes. 
These  corners  can  be  bought  by  the  pound  at  hardware  stores. 

•    Management  of  hotbeds. 

Close  attention  is  required  in  the  management  of  hotbeds, 
to  insure  that  they  do  not  become  too  hot  when  the  sun  comes 
out  suddenly,  and  to  give  plenty  of  fresh  air. 

Ventilation  is  usually  effected  by  raising  the  sash  at  the 
upper  end  and  letting  it  rest  upon  a  block.  Whenever  the 
temperature  is  above  freezing  point,  it  is  generally  advisable 
to  take  the  sash  off  part  way,  as  shown  in  the  central  part 
of  Fig.  199,  or  even  to  strip  it  off  entirely,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  197. 

Care  should  be  taken  not  to  water  the  plants  at  nightfall, 
especially  in  dull  and  cold  weather,  but  to  give  them  water 
in  the  morning,  when  the  sun  will  soon  bring  the  temperature 
up  to  its  normal  state.  Skill  and  judgment  in  watering  are  of 
the  greatest  importance  in  the  management  of  hotbeds;  but 
this  skill  comes  only  from  thoughtful  practice.  The  satisfac- 
tion and  effectiveness  of  the  work  are  greatly  increased  by  good 
hose  connections  and  good  watering-pots  (Fig.  209). 

Some  protection,  other  than  the  glass,  must  be  given  to  hot- 
beds. They  need  covering  on  every  cold  night,  and  sometimes 
during  the  entire  day  in  very  severe  weather.  Very  good  ma- 
terial for  covering  the  sash  is  matting,  such  as  is  used  for  cov- 


176 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


ering  floors.  Old  pieces  of  carpet  may  also  be  used.  Various 
hotbed  mattings  are  sold  by  dealers  in  gardeners'  supplies. 

Gardeners  often  make  mats  of  rye  straw,  although  the  price 
of  good  straw  and  the  excellence  of  manufactured  materials 
make  this  home-made  matting  less  desirable  than  formerly. 
Such  mats  are  thick  and  durable,  and  are  rolled  up  in  the  morn- 
ing, as  shown  in  Fig.  199.  There  are  various  methods  of  making 
these  straw  mats,  but  Fig.  210  illustrates  one  of  the  best.  A 
frame  is  made  after  the  manner  of  a  saw-horse,  with  a  double 

top,  and  tarred  or  marline  twine 
is  used  for  securing  the  strands 
of  straw.  It  is  customary  to  use 
six  runs  of  this  warp.  Twelve 
spools  of  string  are  provided, 
six  hanging  on  either  side.  Some 
persons  wind  the  cord  upon  two 
twenty-penny  nails,  as  shown 
in  the  figure,  these  nails  being 
held  together  at  one  end  by 
wire  which  is  secured  in  notches 

210.   The  making  of  straw  mats.         gj^^  -^^^  ^^^^       ^j^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^ 

of  the  spikes  are  free,  and  allow  the  string  to  be  caught  be- 
tween them,  thus  preventing  the  balls  from  unwinding  as  they 
hang  upon  the  frame.  Two  wisps  of  straight  r3^e  straw  are 
secured  and  laid  upon  the  frame,  with  the  butt  ends  outward 
and  the  heads  overlapping.  Two  opposite  spools  are  then 
brought  up,  and  a  hard  knot  is  tied  at  each  point.  The  pro- 
jecting butts  of  the  straw  are  then  cut  off  with  a  hatchet,  and 
the  mat  is  allowed  to  drop  through  to  receive  the  next  pair  of 
wisps.  In  making  these  mats,  it  is  essential  that  the  rye  con- 
tains no  ripe  grain;  otherwise  it  attracts  the  mice.  It  is  best 
to  grow  rye  for  this  especial  purpose,  and  to  cut  it  before  the 
grain  is  in  the  milk,  so  that  the  straw  does  not  need  to  be 
threshed. 


THE  HANDLING    OF   THE  PLANTS  177 

In  addition  to  these  coverings  of  straw  or  matting,  it  is  some- 
times necessary  to  provide  board  shutters  to  protect  the  beds, 
particularly  if  the  plants  are  started  very  early  in  the  season. 
These  shutters  are  made  of  half-inch  or  five-eighths-inch  pine 
lumber,  and  are  the  same  size  as  the  sash  —  three  by  six  feet. 
They  may  be  placed  upon  the  sash  underneath  the  matting, 
or  they  may  be  used  above  the  matting.  In  some  cases  they 
are  used  without  any  matting. 

In  the  growing  of  plants  in  hotbeds,  every  effort  should  be 
made  to  prevent  the  plants  from  growing  spindling,  or  becoming 
''  drawn."  To  make  stocky  plants,  it  is  necessary  to  give  room 
to  each  plant,  to  be  sure  that  the  distance  from  the  plants  to  the 
glass  is  not  great,  to  provide  not  too  much  water  in  dull  and  cold 
weather,  and  particularly  to  give  abundance  of  air. 


CHAPTER  VI 

PROTECTING  PLANTS   FROM   THINGS   THAT   PREY   ON   THEM 

Plants  are  preyed  on  by  insects  and  fungi;  and  they  are 
subject  to  various  kinds  of  disease  that,  for  the  most  part,  are 
not  yet  understood.  They  are  often  injured  also  by  mice  and 
rabbits  (p.  144),  by  moles,  dogs,  cats,  and  chickens;  and  fruit  is 
eaten  by  birds.  Moles  may  be  troublesome  on  sandy  land; 
they  heave  the  ground  by  their  burrowing  and  may  often  be 
killed  by  stamping  when  the  burrow  is  being  raised;  there  are 
mole  traps  that  are  more  or  less  successful.  Dogs  and  cats 
work  injury  mostly  by  walking  across  newly  made  gardens 
or  lying  in  them.  These  animals,  as  well  as  chickens,  should 
be  kept  within  their  proper  place  (p.  16);  or  if  they  roam  at 
will,  the  garden  must  be  inclosed  in  a  tight  wire  fence  or  the 
beds  protected  by  brush  laid  closely  over  them. 

The  insects  and  diseases  that  attack  garden  plants  are  legion; 
and  yet,  for  the  most  part,  they  are  not  very  difficult  to  combat  if 
one  is  timely  and  thorough  in  his  operations.  These  difficulties 
may  be  divided  into  three  great  categories :  the  injuries  wrought 
by  insects;  the  injuries  of  parasitic  fungi;  the  various  types 
of  so-called  constitutional  diseases,  some  of  which  are  caused  by 
germs  or  bacteria,  and  many  of  which  have  not  yet  been  worked 
out  by  investigators. 

The  diseases  caused  by  parasitic  fungi  are  usually  distinguished 
by  distinct  marks,  spots  or  blisters  on  the  leaves  or  stems, 
and  the  gradual  weakening  or  death  of  the  part;  and,  in  many 
cases,  the  leaves  drop  bodily.  For  the  most  part,  these  spots 
on  the  leaves  or  stems  sooner  or  later  exhibit  a  mildew-fike  or 

178 


PROTECTING  PLANTS 


179 


rusty  appearance,  due  to  the  development  of  the  spores  or 
fruiting  bodies.  Fig.  211  illustrates  the  ravages  of  one  of  the 
parasitic  fungi,  the  shot- 
hole  fungus  of  the  plum. 
Each  spot  probably  rep- 
resents a  distinct  attack 
of  the  fungus,  and  in  this 
particular  disease  these 
inj  ured  parts  of  tissue  are 

liable  to  fall  out,  leaving  211.   Shot-hole  disease  of  plum. 

holes  in  the  leaf.  Plum  leaves  that  are  attacked  early  in  the  sea- 
son by  this  disease  usually  drop 
prematurely;  but  sometimes  the 
leaves  persist,  being  riddled  by 
holes  at  the  close  of  the  sea- 
son. Fig.  212  is  the  rust  of  the 
hollyhock.  In  this  case  the 
pustules  of  the  fungus  are  very 
definite  on  the  under  side  of  the 
leaf.  The  blisters  of  leaf-curl 
are  shown  in  Fig.  213.  The 
ragged  work  of  apple-scab  fungus 
212.  Hollyhock  rust.  jg  shown  in  Fig.  214. 

The  constitutional  and  bacterial  diseases  usually  affect  the 

whole  plant,  or  at  least  large  portions  of  it;    and  the  seat  of 


213.   Leaf-curl  of  peach,  due  to  a  fungus. 


180 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


214.  Leaves  and  fruits  injured  by  fungi,  chiefly  apple- 
scab. 


attack  is  commonly  not  so  much  in  the  individual  leaves  as  in 
the  stems,  the  sources  of  food  supply  being  thereby  cut  off  from 
the  foliage.  The  symptoms  of  this  class  of 
diseases  are  general  weakening  of  plant  when 
the  disease  affects  the  plant  as  a 
whole  or  when  it  attacks  large 
branches;  or  sometimes  the 
leaves  shrivel  and  die  about 
the  edges  or  in  large  irregu- 
lar discolored  spots,  but 
without  the  dis- 
tinct pustular 
marks  of  the 
parasitic  fungi. 
There  is  a  gen- 
eral tendency 
for  the  foliage  on  plants  affected  with  such  diseases  to  shrivel 
and  to  hang  on  the  stem  for  a  time.  One  of  the  best  illus- 
trations of  this  type  of  disease  is  the  pear-blight.  Sometimes 
the  plant  gives  rise  to  abnormal  growths,  as  in  the  "  willow 
shoots"  of  peaches  affected  with  yellows  (Fig.  215). 

Another  class  of  diseases  are  the  root-galls.  They  are  of 
various  kinds.  The  root-gall  of  raspberries,  crown-gall  of 
peaches,  apples,  and  other  trees,  is  the  most  popularly  recognized 
of  this  class  of  troubles  (Fig.  216).  It  has  long  been  known  as 
a  disease  of  nursery  stock.  Many  states  have  laws  against 
the  sale  of  trees  showing  this  disease.  Its  cause  was  unknown, 
until  in  1907  Smith  and  Townsend,  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  undertook 
an  investigation.  They  proved  that  it  is  a  bacterial  disease 
(caused  by  Bacterium  tumefaciens) ;  but  just  how  the  bacteria 
gain  entrance  to  the  root  is  not  known.  The  same  bacterium 
may  cause  galls  on  the  stems  of  other  plants,  as,  for  example, 
on  certain  of  the  daisies.     The  ''hairy-root"  of  apples,  and 


PROTECTING  PLANTS 


181 


certain  galls  that  often  appear  on  the  limbs  of  large  apple-trees, 
are  also  known  to  be  caused  by  this  same  bacterium.  The 
disease  seems  to  be  most 
serious  and  destructive 
on  the  raspberry,  par- 
ticularly the  Cuthbert 
variety.  The  best  thing 
to  be  done  when  the  rasp- 
berry patch  becomes  in- 
fested is  to  root  out  the 
plants  and  destroy  them, 
planting  a  new  patch 
with  clean  stock  on  land 
that  has  not  grown  ber- 
ries for  some  time.  Not- 
withstanding the  laws 
that  have  been  made 
against  the  distribution 
of  root-gall  from  nurs- 
eries, the  evidence  seems 
to  show  that  it  is  not  a 
serious  disease  of  apples 
or  peaches,  at  least  not 

in  the  northeastern  United  States,  It  is  not 
determined  how  far  it  may  injure  such  trees. 
Of  obvious  insect  injuries,  there  are  two 
general  types,  —  those  wrought  by  insects  that 
bite  or  chew  their  food,  as  the  ordinary  beetles 
and  worms,  and  those  wrought  by  insects  that 
puncture  the  surface  of  the  plant  and  derive 
their  food  by  sucking  the  juices,  as  scale-insects 
and  plant-Hce.  The  canker-worm  (Fig.  217)  is  a 
„,,   ^  „  notable  example  of  the  former  class;  and  many 

216.   Gall     on     a  ^  ,        t         ,    i      i  i       -i  i- 

raspberry  root,     of  these  iusccts  may  be  dispatched  by  the  appli- 


215.  The  slender  tufted  growth  indicating 
peach  yellows.  The  cause  of  this  disease 
is  undetermined. 


182 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


cation  of  poison  to  the  parts 
that  they  eat.  It  is  apparent, 
however,  that  insects  which 
suck  the  juice  of  the  plant 
are  not  poisoned  by  any 
liquid  that  may  be  applied 
to  the  surface.  They  may 
be  killed  by  various  mate-  217.  Canker-worm, 
rials  that  act  upon  them  ex- 
ternally, as  the  soap  washes,  miscible  oils,  kerosene 
emulsions,  lime-and-sulfur  sprays,  and  the  Uke. 

There  has  been  much  activity  in  recent  years  in  the 
identification  and  study  of  insects,  fungi,  and  micro- 
organisms that  injure  plants;  and  great  numbers  of 
bulletins  and  monographs  have  been  published;  and 
yet  the  gardener  who  has  tried  assiduously  to  follow 
these  investigations  is  likely  to  go  to  his  garden  any 
morning  and  find  troubles  that  he  cannot  identify  and 
which  perhaps  even  an  investigator  himself  might 
not  understand.  It  is  important,  therefore,  that  the 
gardener  inform  himself  not  only  on  particular  kinds 
of  insects  and  diseases,  but  that  he  develop  a  re- 
sourcefulness of  his  own.  He  should  be  able  to  do 
something,  even  if  he  does  not  know  a  complete 
remedy  or  specific.  Some  of  the  procedure,  prevent- 
ive and  remedial,  that  needs  always  to  be  considered, 
is  as  follows:  — 

Keep  the  place  clean,  and  free  from  infection. 
Next  to  keeping  the  plants  vigorous  and  strong, 
this  is  the  first  and  best  means  of  averting 
trouble  from  insects  and  fungi.  Rubbish  and 
all  places  in  which  the  insects  can  hibernate 
and  the  fungi  can  propagate  should  be  done 
away  with.     All  fallen  leaves  from  plants  that 


PROTECTING  PLANTS 


183 


have  been  attacked  by  fungi  should  be  raked  up  and 
burned,  and  in  the  fall  all  diseased  wood  should  be  cut 
out  and  destroyed.  It  is  important  that  diseased  plants 
are  not  thrown  on  the  manure  heap,  to  be  distributed 
through  the  garden  the  follo\ving  season. 
Practice  a  rotation  or  alternation  of  crops  (p.  114).  Some 
of  the  diseases  remain  in  the 
soil  and  attack  the  plant  3^ear 

after  year.  Whenever  any  ^^^-  A  garden  hand  syringe.^ 
crop  shows  signs  of  root  disease,  or  soil  disease,  it  is  partic- 
ularly important  that  another  crop  be  gro^vn  on  the  place. 
See  that  the  disease  or  insect  is  not  bred  on  weeds  or  other 
plants  that  are  botanically  related  to  the  crop  you  grow. 
If  the  wild  mallow,  or  plant  known  to  children  as 
"cheeses"  (Malva  rotuncUfolia) ,  is  destroyed,  there  will 

be  much  less  difficulty  with 
hollyhock  rust.     Do  not  let 
the  cabbage  club-root  disease 
breed   on   wild   turnips   and 
other    mustards,    or    black- 
knot   on  plum   sprouts  and 
wild  cherries,  or  tent-cater- 
pillars on  wild  cherries  and 
other  trees. 
Always   be  ready  to  resort  to 
hand-picking.      We    have 
grown  so  accustomed  to  kill- 
ing insects  by  other  means 
that  we  have  almost  forgotten  that  hand-picking  is  often 
the  surest  and  sometimes   even  the  most   expeditious 
means  of  checking  an  invasion  in  a  home  garden.     Many 
insects  can  be  jarred  off  early  in  the  morning.     Egg- 
masses   Qn  leaves  and  stems  may  be  removed.     Cut- 
worms may  be  dug  out.     Diseased  leaves  may  be  picked 


119.   A  knai:)sack  pump. 


184 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


off  and  burned;   this  will  do  much  to  combat  the  holly- 
hock  rust,  aster  rust,  and  other  infections. 


220.  A  compressed-air 
hand  pump  for  gar- 
den work. 


221.   A  bucket 
pump. 


222.   A  bucket 
pump. 


Keep  close  watch  on  the  plants,  and  be  prepared  to  strike 
quickly.  It  should  be  a  matter  of  pride  to  a  gardener  to 
have  in  his  workhouse 
a  supply  of  the  common 
insecticides  and  fungi- 
cides (Paris  green  or 
arsenate  of  lead,  some 
of  the  tobacco  prepara- 
tions, white  hellebore, 
whale-oil  soap,  bor- 
deaux mixture,  flowers 
of  sulfur,  carbonate  of 

copper   for    solution    in  223.   A  cart-mounted  pump. 


PROTECTING   PLANTS 


185 


ammonia),  and  also  a  good  hand  syringe  (Fig.  218),  a 
knapsack  pump  (Figs.  219,  220),  a  bucket  pump  (Figs. 
221,  222),  a  hand  bellows  or  powder  gun,  perhaps  a 
barrow  outfit  (Figs.  223,  224,  225),  and  if  the  planta- 
tion is  large  enough,  some  kind  of  a  force  pump  (Figs. 
226,  227,  228).     If  one  is  always  ready,  there  is  little 


226.   A  barrel  hand  pump. 


227.   A  barrel  outfit,  showing  nozzles  oa 
extension  rods  for  trees. 


186 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


danger  from  any  insect  or  disease  that  is  controllable 
by  spraying. 


228 


Screens  and  covers. 

There  are  various  ways  of  keeping  insects  away  from  plants. 
One  of  the  best  is  to  cover  the  plants  with  fine  mosquito-netting 

or  to  grow  them  in  hand- 
frames,  or  to  use  a  wire- 
covered  box  like  that  shown 
in  Fig.  229.  In  growing 
plants  under  such  covers,  care 
must  be  taken  that  the  plants 
are  not  kept  too  close  or  con- 
fined; and  in  cases  in  which 
the  insects  hibernate  in  the 

A  truck-mounted  barrel  hand  spray   SOil,  theSC  boxeS,  by  keeping 

P""^P-  the  soil  warm,  may  cause  the 

insects  to  hatch  all  the  sooner.  In  most  cases,  however,  these 
covers  are  very  efficient,  especially  for  keeping  the  striped 
bugs  off  young  plants  of 
melons  and  cucumbers. 

Cut-worms  may  be  kept 
away  from  plants  by  placing 
sheets  of  tin  or  of  heavy 
glazed  paper  about  the  stem 
of  the  plant,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
230.  Climbing  cut- worms  are 
kept  off  young  trees  by  the 
means  shown  in  Fig.  231. 
Or  a  roll  of  cotton  may  be 
placed  about  the  trunk  of 
the  tree,  a  string  being  tied 
on  the  lower  edge  of  the  roll 


229. 


Wire-covered    box   for    protecting 
plants  from  insects. 


PROTECTING  PLANTS 


187 


230. 


Protecting  from 
cut-worms. 


and  the  upper  edge  of  the  cotton  turned  down  like  the  top  of 
a  boot ;  the  insects  cannot  crawl  over  this  obstruction  (p.  203). 

The  maggots  that  attack  the  roots  of 
cabbages  and  cauHflowers  may  be  kept 
from  the  plant  by  pieces  of  tarred  paper, 
which  are  placed  close  about  the  stem  upon 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  Fig.  232  illus- 
trates a  hexagon  of  paper,  and  also  shows 
a  tool  used  for  cutting  it.  This  means  of 
preventing  the  attacks  of  the  cabbage 
maggot  is  described  in  detail  by  the  late 

Professor  Goff  (for 

another  method   of 

controlling  cabbage  maggot  see  p.  201) :  — 
"  The  cards  are   cut  in  a  hexagonal 

form,  in  order  better  to  economize  the 

material,  and  a  thinner  grade  of  tarred 

paper   than  the 

ordinary  roofing 

felt   is  used,   as 

it    is    not    only 

cheaper,  but  be- 
ing more  flexible, 

the   cards  made 

from  it  are  more 

readily    placed 

about  the  plant 

The  blade  of  the 


231.   Protecting  trees  from 
cut-worms. 


without  being  torn 

tool,  which  should  be  made  by  an  expert 

blacksmith,  is  formed  from  a  band  of 

steel,  bent  in  the  form  of  a  half  hexagon, 

and  then  taking  an  acute  angle,  reaches 

nearly  to  the  center,  as  shown  in  Fig.  232.     The  part  making 

the  star-shaped  cut  is  formed  from  a  separate  piece  of  steel,  so 


32.  Showing  how  paper  is 
cut  for  protecting  cab- 
bages from  maggots. 
Tlie  Goff  device. 


188  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

attached  to  the  handle  as  to  make  a  close  joint  with  the  blade. 
The  latter  is  beveled  from  the  outside  all  round,  so  that  by 
removing  the  part  making  the  star-shaped  cut,  the  edge  may 
be  ground  on  a  grindstone.  It  is  important  that  the  angles  in 
the  blade  be  made  perfect,  and  that  its  outline  represents  an 
exact  half  hexagon.  To  use  the  tool,  place  the  tarred  paper 
on  the  end  of  a  section  of  a  log  or  piece  of  timber  and  first  cut 
the  lower  edge  into  notches,  as  indicated  at  a,  Fig.  232,  using  only 
one  angle  of  the  tool.  Then  commence  at  the  left  side  and  place 
the  blade  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines,  and  strike  at  the  end 
of  the  handle  with  a  light  mallet,  and  a  complete  card  is  made. 
Continue  in  this  manner  across  the  paper.  The  first  cut  of 
every  alternate  course  will  make  an  imperfect  card,  and  the 
last  cut  in  any  course  may  be  imperfect,  but  the  other  cuts  will 
make  perfect  cards  if  the  tool  is  correctly  made,  and  properly 
used.  The  cards  should  be  placed  about  the  plants  at  the  time 
of  transplanting.  To  place  the  card,  bend  it  slightly  to  open  the 
slit,  then  slip  it  on  to  the  center,  the  stem  entering  the  slit, 
after  which  spread  the  card  out  flat,  and  press  the  points 
formed  by  the  star-shaped  cut  snugly  around  the  stem." 

Fumigating. 

An  effective  means  of  destroying  insects  in  glass  houses  is  by 
fumigating  with  various  kinds  of  smoke  or  vapors.  The  best 
material  to  use  for  general  purposes  is  some  form  of  tobacco 
or  tobacco  compounds.  The  old  method  of  fumigating  with 
tobacco  is  to  burn  slowly  slightly  dampened  tobacco  stems  in  a 
kettle  or  scuttle,  allowing  the  house  to  be  filled  with  the  pungent 
smoke.  Lately,  however,  fluid  extracts  and  other  preparations 
of  tobacco  have  been  brought  into  use,  and  these  are  so  effective 
that  the  tobacco-stem  method  is  becoming  obsolete.  The  use 
of  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  in  greenhouses  is  now  coming  to  be 
common,  for  plant-lice,  white-fly,  and  other  insects.  It  is  also 
used  to  fumigate  nursery  stock  for  San  Jose  scale,  and  mills 


PROTECTING  PLANTS  189 

and  dwellings  for  such  pests  and  vermin  as  become  established 
in  them.  The  following  directions  are  from  Cornell  Bulletin 
283  (from  which  the  formulas  in  the  succeeding  pages,  and 
most  of  the  advice,  are  also  taken) :  — 

■'No  general  formula  can  be  given  for  fumigating  the  different 
kinds  of  plants  grown  in  greenhouses,  as  the  species  and  varieties 
differ  greatly  in  their  ability  to  withstand  the  effects  of  the  gas. 
Ferns  and  roses  are  very  susceptible  to  injury,  and  fumigation 
if  attempted  at  all  should  be  performed  with  great  caution. 
Fumigation  will  not  kill  insect  eggs  and  thus  must  be  repeated 
when  the  new  brood  appears.  Fumigate  only  at  night  when 
there  is  no  wind.  Have  the  house  as  dry  as  possible  and  the 
temperature  as  near  60°  as  practicable. 

''  Hydrocyanic  acid  gas  is  a  deadly  poison,  and  the  greatest 
care  is  required  in  its  use.  Always  use  98  to  100  per  cent  pure 
potassium  cyanide  and  a  good  grade  of  commercial  sulfuric 
acid.  The  chemicals  are  always  combined  in  the  following 
proportion:  Potassium  cyanide,  1  oz.;  sulfuric  acid,  1  fluid 
oz.;  water,  4  fluid  oz.  Always  use  an  earthen  dish,  pour  in 
the  water  first,  and  add  the  sulfuric  acid  to  it.  Put  the  required 
amount  of  cyanide  in  a  thin  paper  bag  and  when  all  is  ready, 
drop  it  into  the  liquid  and  leave  the  room  immediately.  For 
mills  and  dwellings,  use  1  oz.  of  cyanide  for  every  100  cu. 
ft.  of  space.  Make  the  doors  and  windows  as  tight  as  pos- 
sible by  pasting  strips  of  paper  over  the  cracks.  Remove  the 
silverware  and  food,  and  if  brass  and  nickel  work  cannot  be 
removed,  cover  with  vaseline  or  cloths.  Place  proper  amount 
acid  and  water  for  every  room  in  2-gal.  jars.  Use  two  or  more 
in  large  rooms  or  halls.  Weigh  out  the  potassium  cyanide  in 
paper  bags,  and  place  them  near  the  jars.  When  all  is  ready, 
drop  the  cyanide  into  the  jars,  beginning  on  the  top  floors, 
since  the  fumes  are  Hghter  than  air.  In  large  buildings,  it  is 
frequently  necessary  to  suspend  the  bags  of  cyanide  over  the 
jars  by  cords  running  through  screw  eyes  and  all  leading  to  a 


190  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

place  near  the  door.  By  cutting  all  the  cords  at  once  the 
cyanide  will  be  lowered  into  the  jars  and  the  operator  may 
escape  without  injury.  Let  the  fumigation  continue  all 
night,  locking  all  outside  doors  and  placing  danger  signs  on 
the  house." 

In  greenhouses,  the  white-fly  on  cucumbers  and  tomatoes  may 
be  killed  by  overnight  fumigation  with  1  oz.  of  potassium  cya- 
nide to  every  1000  cu.  ft.  of  space;  or  with  a  kerosene  emulsion 
spray  or  whale-oil  soap,  on  plants  not  injured  by  these  materials. 

The  green  aphis  is  dispatched  in  houses  by  fumigation  with 
any  of  the  tobacco  preparations;  on  violets,  by  fumigation  with 
I  to  f  oz.  potassium  cyanide  for  every  1000  cu.  ft.  of  space, 
leaving  the  gas  in  from  J-  to  1  hr. 

The  black  aphis  is  more  difficult  to  kill  than  the  green  aphis, 
but  may  be  controlled  by  the  same  methods  thoroughly  used. 

Soaking  tubers  and  seeds. 

Potato  scab  may  be  prevented,  so  far  as  planting  infected 
''  seed  "  is  concerned,  by  soaking  the  seed  tubers  for  two  hours 
in  30  gal.  of  water  containing  1  pt.  of  commercial  (about  40  per 
cent)  formahn.  Oats  and  wheat,  when  attacked  by  certain 
kinds  of  smut,  may  be  rendered  safe  to  sow  by  soaking  or 
mixing  with  similar  or  weaker  solutions.  It  is  probable  that 
some  other  tubers  and  seeds  can  be  similarly  treated  with  good 
results. 

Potatoes  may  also  be  soaked  (for  scab)  one  and  one-half 
hours  in  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  1  oz.  to  7  gal.  of 
water. 

Spraying. 

The  most  effective  means  of  destroying  insects  and  fungi 
however,  in  any  general  or  large  way,  is  by  the  use  of  various 
sprays.  The  two  general  types  of  insecticides  have  already 
been  mentioned  —  those  that  kill  by  poisoning,  and  those  that 


PROTECTING  PLANTS  191 

kill  by  destroying  the  body  of  the  insect.  Of  the  former,  there 
are  three  materials  in  common  use  —  Paris  green,  arsenate  of 
lead,  and  hellebore.  Of  the  latter,  the  most  usual  at  present 
are  kerosene  emulsion,  miscible  oils,  and  the  lime-sulfur 
wash.  In  the  last  year  or  two,  the  lime-sulfur  preparations 
have  been  greatly  perfected,  and  they  are  now  becoming  popu- 
lar in  commercial  work  not  only  for  insects  but  for  certain  fungi. 

Sprays  for  fungi  usually  depend  for  their  efficiency  on  some 
form  of  copper  or  sulfur,  or  both.  For  surface  mildew^,  as 
grape  mildew,  dusting  flowers  of  sulfur  on  the  foliage  is  a  pro- 
tection. In  most  cases,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  apply 
materials  in  liquid  form,  because  they  can  be  more  thoroughly 
and  economically  distributed,  and  they  adhere  to  the  foliage 
better.  The  best  general  fungicide  is  the  bordeaux  mixture. 
It  is  generally,  however,  not  advisable  to  use  the  bordeaux 
mixture  on  ornamental  plants,  because  it  discolors  the  foliage 
and  makes  the  plants  look  very  untidy.  In  such  cases  it  is  best 
to  use  the  ammoniacal  copper  solution,  which  leaves  no  stain. 

In  all  spraying  operations  it  is  especially  important  that  the 
appHcations  be  made  the  very  moment  the  insect  or  disease  is 
discovered,  or  in  the  case  of  fungous  diseases,  if  one  is  expecting 
an  attack,  it  is  well  to  make  an  application  of  bordeaux  mix- 
ture or  lime-sulfur  even  before  the  disease  appears.  When  the 
fungus  once  gets  inside  the  plant  tissue,  it  is  very  difficult 
to  destroy  it.  For  ordinary  conditions,  from  two  to  four  spray- 
ings are  necessary  to  dispatch  the  enemy.  In  spraying  for 
insects  in  home  gardens,  it  is  often  advisable  to  make  a  sec- 
ond application  the  day  following  the  first  one  in  order  to 
destroy  the  remaining  insects  before  they  recover  from  the 
first  treatment. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  machines  and  devices  for  the  ap- 
phcation  of  sprays  to  plants.  For  a  few  individual  specimens, 
the  spray  may  be  applied  with  a  whisk,  or  with  a  common  garden 
syringe.     If  one  has  a  few  trees  to  treat,  however,  it  is  best  to 


192 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


have  some  kind  of  bucket  pump  like  those  shown  in  Figs.  221, 

222.  On  a  lawn  or  in  a  small  garden  a  tank  on  wheels  (Figs. 

223,  224,  225)  is  handy  and  efficient.  In  such  cases,  or  even 
for  larger  areas,  some  of  the  knapsack  pumps  (Figs.  219,  220) 
are  very  desirable.  These  machines  are  always  serviceable, 
because  the  operator  stands  so  near  to  his  work;  but  as  they 
carry  a  comparatively  small  quantity  of  hquid  and  do  not 

throw  it  rapidly,  they  are  expensive 
when  much  work  is  to  be  done. 
Yet,  in  ordinary  home  grounds,  the 
knapsack  pump  or  compressed-air 
pump  is  one  of  the  most  efficient 
and  practicable  of  all  the  spraying 
devices. 

For  large  areas,  as  for  small  or- 
chards and  fields,  a  barrel  pump 
mounted  on  a  wagon  is  best.  Com- 
mon types  of  barrel  pumps  are  shown 
in  Figs.  226,  227,  228.  Commercial 
plantations  are  now  sprayed  by 
power  machines.  There  are  many 
good  patterns  of  spraying  machines, 
and  the  intending  purchaser  should 
send  for  catalogues  to  the  various 
manufacturers.  The  addresses  may 
be  found  in  the  advertising  pages 
of  rural  papers. 

As  to  nozzles  for  spraying  it  may 
be  said  that  there  is  no  one  pattern 
that  is  best  for  all  purposes.  For  most  uses  in  home  grounds 
the  cyclone  or  vermorel  type  (Fig.  233)  will  give  best  satisfac- 
tion. The  pump  manufacturers  supply  special  nozzles  for 
their  machines. 


233.   Cyclone  or   vermorel    type 
of  nozzle,  single  and  multiple. 


I 


PROTECTING  PLANTS  193 

Insecticide  spraying  formulas. 

The  two  classes  of  insecticides  are  here  described,  —  the 
poisons  (arsenicals  and  white  hellebore)  for  chewing  insects,  as 
the  beetles  and  all  kinds  of  worms;  the  contact  insecticides,  as 
kerosene,  oils,  soap,  tobacco,  lime-sulfur,  for  plant-lice,  scale, 
and  insects  in  such  position  that  the  material  cannot  be  fed  to 
them  (as  maggots  in  the  underground  parts). 

Paris  green.  —  The  standard  insecticidal  poison.  This  is  used  in 
varying  strengths,  depending  on  the  insect  to  be  controlled  and  the 
kind  of  plant  treated.  Mix  the  Paris  green  into  a  paste  and  then  add 
to  the  water.  Keep  the  mixture  thoroughly  agitated  while  spraying. 
If  for  use  on  fruit  trees,  add  1  lb.  of  quick  lime  for  every  pound  of  Paris 
green  to  prevent  burning  the  foliage.  For  potatoes  it  is  frequently 
used  alone,  but  it  is  much  safer  to  use  the  lime.  Paris  green  and 
bordeaux  mixture  may  be  combined  without  lessening  the  value  of 
either,  and  the  caustic  action  of  the  arsenic  is  prevented.  The  propor- 
tion of  the  poison  to  use  is  given  under  the  various  insects  discussed  in 
the  succeeding  pages. 

Arsenate  of  lead.  ■ —  This  can  be  applied  in  a  stronger  mixture  than 
other  arsenical  poisons  without  injuring  the  foliage.  It  is,  therefore, 
much  used  against  beetles  and  other  insects  that  are  hard  to  poison, 
as  elm-leaf  beetle  and  canker-worm.  It  comes  as  a  paste  or  a  powder, 
and  should  be  mixed  thoroughly  with  a  small  quantity  of  water  before 
placing  in  the  sprayer,  else  the  nozzles  will  clog.  Arsenate  of  lead  and 
bordeaux  mixture  or  lime-sulfur  can  be  combined  without  lessening 
the  value  of  either.  It  is  used  in  strengths  varying  from  4  to  10  lb. 
per  100  gal.,  depending  on  the  kind  of  insect  to  be  killed. 

Arsenite  of  soda  and  arsenite  of  lime  are  sometimes  used  with  bor- 
deaux mixture. 

White  Hellebore.  —  For  wet  application,  use  fresh  white  hellebore, 
4  oz.;  water,  2  or  3  gal.  For  dry  application,  use  hellebore,  1  lb.; 
flour  or  air-slaked  lime,  5  lb.  This  is  a  yellowish  white  powder  made 
from  the  roots  of  the  white  hellebore  plant.  It  loses  its  strength  after 
a  time  and  should  be  used  fresh.     It  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  the 


194  MANUAL    OF,  GARDENING 

ars3nical  poisons  on  plants  or  fruits  soon  to  be  eaten,  as  on  curranta 
and  gooseberries  for  the  currant-worm. 

Tobacco.  —  This  is  a  valuable  insecticide  and  is  used  in  several 
forms.  As  a  dust  it  is  used  extensively  in  greenhouses  for  plant-lice, 
and  in  nurseries  and  about  apple  trees  for  the  woolly  aphis.  Tobacco 
decoction  is  made  by  steeping  or  soaking  the  stems  in  water.  It  is 
often  used  as  a  spray  against  plant-hce.  Tobacco  in  the  form  of  ex- 
tracts, punks,  and  powders  is  sold  under  various  trade  names  for  use  in 
fumigating  greenhouses.     (See  page  188.) 

Kerosene  emulsion.  —  Hard,  soft,  or  whale-oil  soap,  \  lb. ;  water, 
1  gal.;  kerosene,  2  gal.  Dissolve  the  soap  in  hot  water;  remove  from 
the  fire  and  whib  still  hot  add  the  kerosene.  Pump  the  liquid  back 
into  itself  for  five  or  ten  minutes  or  until  it  becomes  a  creamy  mass. 
If  properly  made,  the  oil  will  not  separate  out  on  cooling. 

For  use  on  dormant  trees,  dilute  with  5  to  7  parts  of  water.  For 
killing  plant-lice  on  foliage  dilute  with  10  to  15  parts  of  water.  Crude 
oil  emulsion  is  made  in  the  same  way  by  substituting  crude  oil  in 
place  of  kerosene.  The  strength  of  oil  emulsions  is  frequently  indi- 
cated by  the  percentage  of  oil  in  the  diluted  Hquid  :^ 

For  a  10%  emulsion  add  17  gal.  of  water  to  3  gal.  stock  emulsion. 
For  a  15%  emulsion  add  10^  gal.  of  water  to  3  gal.  stock  emulsion. 
For  a  20%  emulsion  add  7  gal.  of  water  to  3  gal.  stock  emulsion. 
For  a  25%  emulsion  add  5  gal.  of  water  to  3  gal.  stock  emulsion. 

Carbolic  acid  emulsion. —  Soap,  1  lb.;  water,  1  gal.;  crude  carbolic 
acid,  1  pt.  Dissolve  the  soap  in  hot  water,  add  the  carboUc  acid,  and 
agitate  into  an  emulsion.  For  use  against  root-maggots,  dilute  with 
30  parts  of  water. 

Soaps.  —  An  effective  insecticide  for  plant-lice  is  whale-oil  soap. 
Dissolve  in  hot  water  and  dilute  so  as  to  obtain  one  pound  of  soap  to 
every  five  or  seven  gallons  of  water.  This  strength  is  effective  against 
plant-lice.  It  should  be  applied  in  stronger  solutions,  however,  for 
scale  insects.  Home-made  soaps  and  good  laundry  soaps,  like  Ivory 
soap,  are  often  as  effective  as  whale-oil  soap. 

Miscible  oils.  —  There  are  now  on  the  market  a  number  of  prepara- 
tions of  petroleum  and  other  oils  intended  primarily  for  use  against 
the  San  Jose  scale.     They  mix  readily  with  cold  water  and  are  immedi- 


i 


PROTECTING  PLANTS  195 

ately  ready  for  use.  While  quickly  prepared,  easily  applied,  and  gen- 
erally effective,  they  cost  considerably  more  than  lime-sulfur  wash. 
They  are,  however,  less  corrosive  to  the  pumps  and  more  agreeable  to 
use.  They  are  especially  valuable  to  the  man  with  only  a  few  trees  or 
shrubs  who  would  not  care  to  go  to  the  trouble  and  expense  to  make 
up  the  lime-sulfur  wash.  They  should  be  diluted  with  not  more  than 
10  or  12  parts  of  water.     Use  only  on  dormant  trees. 

Lime  and  sulfur  wash.  —  Quicklime,  20  lb. ;  flowers  of  sulfur,  15  lb. ; 
water,  50  gal.  The  lime  and  sulfur  must  be  thoroughly  boiled.  An 
iron  kettle  is  often  convenient  for  the  work.  Proceed  as  follows: 
Place  the  lime  in  the  kettle.  Add  hot  water  gradually  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  produce  the  most  rapid  slaking  of  the  lime.  When  the 
lime  begins  to  slake,  add  the  sulfur  and  stir  together.  If  convenient, 
keep  the  mixture  covered  with  burlap  to  save  the  heat.  After  slaking 
has  ceased,  add  more  water  and  boil  the  mixture  one  hour.  As  the 
sulfur  goes  into  solution,  a  rich  orange-red  or  dark  green  color  will 
appear.  After  boiling  sufficiently,  add  water  to  the  required  amount 
and  strain  into  the  spray  tank.  The  wash  is  most  effective  when  ap- 
plied warm,  but  may  be  applied  cold.  If  one  has  access  to  a  steam 
boiler,  boiling  with  steam  is  more  convenient  and  satisfactory.  Bar- 
rels may  be  used  for  holding  the  mixture,  and  the  steam  applied  by 
running  a  pipe  or  rubber  hose  into  the  mixture.  Proceed  in  the  same 
way  until  the  lime  is  slaked,  when  the  steam  may  be  turned  on. 
Continue  boihng  for  45  min.  to  an  hour,  or  until  sulfur  is  dissolved. 

This  strength  can  be  applied  safely  only  when  the  trees  are  dor- 
mant. It  has  been  mainly  an  insecticide  for  use  on  San  Jose  scale,  for 
which  it  affords  a  standard  treatment ;  but  recently  it  has  been  modi- 
fied for  use  against  other  insects  and  certain  fungi  (as  peach  leaf-curl, 
apple-scab,  brown-rot) . 

Four  kinds  of  lime-sulfur  preparation  are  now  recognized:  (1)  the 
ordinary  home-made  wash  for  winter  use  (given  above) ;  (2)  concen- 
trated commercial  solutions,  now  on  the  market  under  various  names ; 
(3)  home-made  concentrated  solution ;  (4)  self-boiled  lime-sulfur.  The 
commercial  concentrates  differ  much  in  strength ;  and  these,  as  well  as 
the  home-made  concentrate,  should  be  tested  by  a  hydrometer  before 
use,  and  then  they  should  be  diluted  with  water  to  a  definite  strength. 
The  formulas  for  these  washes  are  discussed  on  pages  539-541. 


196  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Fungicide  spraying  formulas. 

The  standard  fungicide  is  bordeaux  mixture,  made  in  several 
forms.  The  second  most  important  fungicide  for  the  home  gar- 
dener is  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate.  Sulfur  dust  (flowers  of 
sulfur)  and  liver  of  sulfur  (potassium  sulfide)  are  also  useful  in 
dry  or  wet  sprays  for  surface  mildews.  The  lime-sulfur  wash, 
primarily  an  insecticide,  also  has  fungicidal  property  (p.  195). 

Bordeaux  mixture.  —  Copper  sulfate,  4  lb. ;  stone  lime  or  quick- 
lime (unslaked),  4  lb. ;  water,  50  gal.  This  formula  is  the  strength 
usually  recommended.  Stock  mixtures  of  copper  sulfate  and  lime  are 
desirable.     They  are  prepared  in  the  following  way :  — 

(1)  Dissolve  the  required  amount  of  copper  sulfate  in  water  in  the 
proportion  of  one  pound  to  one  gallon  several  hours  before  the  solution 
is  needed,  the  copper  sulfate  crystals  being  suspended  in  a  sack  near 
the  top  of  the  water.  A  solution  of  copper  sulfate  is  heavier  than 
water.  As  soon  then,  as  the  crystals  begin  to  dissolve  the  solution  will 
sink,  keeping  water  in  contact  with  the  crystals.  In  this  way,  the 
crystals  will  dissolve  much  sooner  than  if  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the 
barrel  of  water.  In  case  large  quantities  of  stock  solution  are  needed, 
two  pounds  of  copper  sulfate  may  be  dissolved  in  one  gallon  of  water. 

(2)  Slake  the  required  amount  of  Hme  in  a  tub  or  trough.  Add  the 
water  slowly  at  first,  so  that  the  lime  crumbles  into  a  fine  powder.  If 
small  quantities  of  lime  are  used,  hot  water  is  preferred.  When  com- 
pletely slaked,  or  entirely  powdered,  add  more  water.  When  the  hme 
has  slaked  sufficiently,  add  water  to  bring  it  to  a  thick  milk,  or  to  a 
certain  number  of  gallons.  The  amount  required  for  each  tank  of 
spray  mixture  can  be  secured  approximately  from  this  stock  mixture, 
which  should  not  be  allowed  to  dry  out. 

(3)  Use  five  gallons  of  stock  solution  of  copper  sulfate  for  every 
fifty  gallons  of  bordeaux  required.  Pour  this  into  the  tank.  Add 
water  until  the  tank  is  about  two-thirds  full.  From  the  stock  lime 
mixture  take  the  required  amount.  Knowing  the  number  of  pounds 
of  lime  in  the  stock  mixture  and  the  volume  of  that  mixture,  one  can 
take  out  approximately  the  number  of  pounds  required.  Dilute  this 
a  little  by  adding  water,  and  strain  into  the  tank.     Stir  the  mixture. 


PROTECTING  PLANTS  197 

and  add  water  to  make  the  required  amount.  Experiment  stations 
often  recommend  the  diluting  of  both  the  copper  sulfate  solution  and 
the  lime  mixture  to  one-half  the  required  amount  before  pouring  to- 
gether. This  is  not  necessary,  and  is  often  impracticable  for  commer- 
cial work.  It  is  preferable  to  dilute  the  copper  sulfate  solution.  Never 
pour  together  the  strong  stock  mixtures  and  dilute  afterward.  Bor- 
deaux mixture  of  other  strengths,  as  recommended,  is  made  in  the  same 
way,  except  that  the  amounts  of  copper  sulfate  and  lime  are  varied. 

(4)  It  is  not  necessary  to  weigh  the  lime  in  making  bordeaux  mix- 
ture, for  a  simple  test  can  be  used  to  determine  when  enough  of  a  stock 
lime  mixture  has  been  added.  Dissolve  an  ounce  of  yellow  prussiate 
of  potash  in  a  pint  of  water  and  label  it  ''poison."  Cut  a  V-shai)ed 
sht  in  one  side  of  the  cork  so  that  the  liquid  may  be  poured  out  in  drops. 
Add  the  lime  mixture  to  the  diluted  copper  sulfate  solution  until  the 
ferro-cyanide  (or  prussiate)  test  solution  will  not  turn  brown  when 
dropped  from  the  bottle  into  the  mixture.  It  is  always  best  to  add  a 
considerable  excess  of  lime. 

"Sticker"  or  adhesive  for  bordeaux  mixture.  —  Resin,  2  lb. ;  sal  soda 
(crystals),  1  lb, ;  water,  1  gal.  Boil  until  of  a  clear  brown  color  —  one 
to  one  and  one-half  hours.  Cook  in  iron  kettle  in  the  open.  Add 
this  amount  to  each  fifty  gallons  of  bordeaux  for  onions  and  cabbage. 
For  other  plants  difficult  to  wet,  add  this  amount  to  every  one  hun- 
dred gallons  of  the  mixture.  This  mixture  will  prevent  the  bordeaux 
from  being  washed  off  by  the  heaviest  rains. 

Ammoniacal  copper  carbonate.  —  Copper  carbonate,  5  oz. ;  ammo- 
nia, 3  pt. ;  water,  50  gal.  Dilute  the  ammonia  in  seven  or  eight  parts 
of  water.  Make  a  paste  of  the  copper  carbonate  with  a  little  water. 
Add  the  paste  to  the  diluted  ammonia,  and  stir  until  dissolved.  Add 
enough  water  to  make  fifty  gallons.  This  mixture  loses  strength  on 
standing,  and  therefore  should  be  made  as  recjuired.  It  is  used  in 
place  of  bordeaux  when  one  wishes  to  avoid  the  coloring  of  maturing 
fruits  or  ornamental  plants.     Not  as  effective  as  bordeaux. 

Potassium  sulfide.  —  Potassium  sulfide  (liver  of  sulfur),  3  oz. ;  water, 
10  gal.  As  this  mixture  loses  strength  on  standing,  it  should  be  made 
just  before  using.  It  is  particularly  valuable  for  the  powdery  mildew 
of  many  plants,  especially  gooseberry,  carnation  rust,  rose  mildew,  etc. 

Sulfur.  —  Sulfur  has  been  found  to  possess  considerable  value  as  a 


198  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

fungicide.  The  flowers  of  sulfur  may  be  sprinkled  over  the  plants, 
particularly  when  they  are  wet.  It  is  most  effective  in  hot,  dry  weather. 
In  rose  houses  it  is  mixed  with  half  its  bulk  of  lime,  and  made  into  a 
paste  with  water.  This  is  painted  on  the  steam  pipes.  The  fumes 
destroy  mildew  on  the  roses.  Mixed  with  lime,  it  has  proved  effective 
in  the  control  of  onion  smut  when  drilled  into  the  rows  with  the  seed. 
Sulfur  is  not  effective  against  black-rot  of  grapes. 

Treatment  for  some  of  the  common  insects. 

The  most  approved  preventive  and  remedial  treatments  for 
such  insect  pests  as  are  most  likely  to  menace  home  grounds 
and  plantations  are  here  briefly  discussed.  In  case  of  any  un- 
usual difficulty  that  he  cannot  control,  the  home-maker  should 
take  it  up  with  the  agricultural  experiment  station  in  the  state, 
sending  good  specimens  of  the  insect  for  identification.  He 
should  also  have  the  pubfications  of  the  station. 

The  statements  that  are  here  made  are  intended  as  advice 
rather  than  as  directions.  They  are  chosen  from  good  authori- 
ties (mostly  from  Sfingerland  and  Crosby  in  this  case) ;  but  the 
reader  must,  of  course,  assume  his  own  risk  in  applying  them. 
The  effectiveness  of  any  recommended  treatment  depends  very 
largely  on  the  care,  thoroughness,  and  timeliness  with  which 
the  work  is  done;  and  new  methods  and  practices  are  constantly 
appearing  as  the  result  of  new  investigations.  The  dates  given 
in  these  directions  are  for  New  York. 

Ayhis  or  'plant-louse.  —  The  stock  remedies  for  aphides  or  plant- 
lice  are  kerosene  emulsion  and  the  tobacco  preparations.  Whale-oil 
soap  is  also  good.  The  tobacco  may  be  appHed  as  a  spray,  or  in  the 
house  as  fumigation ;  the  commercial  forms  of  nicotine  are  excellent. 
(See  page  194.)  Be  sure  to  apply  the  remedy  before  the  leaves  have 
curled  and  afford  protection  for  the  lice ;  be  sure,  also,  to  hit  the  under- 
side of  the  leaves,  where  the  lice  usually  are.  The  presence  of  lice  on 
trees  is  sometimes  first  discovered  from  the  honey-dew  that  drops  on 
wall^. 


PROTECTING  PLANTS  199 

Usually  the  emulsion  is  diluted  with  10-15  parts  of  water  for  plant- 
lice  (see  formula,  page  194) ;  but  some  of  the  species  (as  the  dark  brown 
cherry-leaf  louse)  require  a  stronger  emulsion,  about  6  parts  of  water. 

The  lady-birds  (one  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  234)  destroy  great 
numbers  of  plant-lice,  and  their  presence  should  there- 
fore be  encouraged. 

Apple-maggot  or  "  railroad-ivorm."  —  The  small 
white  maggots  make  brownish  winding  burrows  in 
the  flesh  of  the  fruit,  particularly  in  summer  and  early 
fall  varieties.  This  insect  cannot  be  reached  by  a 
spray  as  the  parent  fly  inserts  her  eggs  under  the  skin 
of  the  apple.  When  full-grown,  the  maggot  leaves 
the  fruit,  passes  into  the  ground,  and  there  transforms  ^34.  Lady-birH 
inside  a  tough,  leathery  case.  Tillage  has  been  found  ^^^^l'  ^^""""^ 
to  be  of  no  value  as  a  means  of  control.  The  only 
effective  treatment  is  to  pick  up  all  windfalls  every  two  or  three  days, 
and  either  to  feed  them  out  or  to  bury  them  deeply,  thus  killing  the 
maggots. 

Asparagus  beetle.  —  Clean  cultural  methods  are  usually  sufficient  to 
prevent  the  asparagus  beetle's  seriously  injuring  well-established  beds. 
Young  plants  require  more  or  less  protection.  A  good  grade  of  arsenate 
of  lead,  1  lb.  to  25  gal.  of  water,  will  quickly  destroy  the  grubs  on  the 
foliage  of  either  young  or  old  plants.  Apply  it  with  an  ordinary  sprin- 
kling can,  or  better,  use  one  of  the  numerous  spraying  devices  now  on 
the  market.  The  necessity  for  treatment  must  be  determined  by  the 
abundance  of  the  pests.  They  should  not  be  permitted  to  become 
abundant  in  midsummer  or  the  over-wintering  beetles  may  injure  the 
shoots  in  the  spring. 

Blister-viite  on  apple  and  pear.  —  The  presence  of  this  minute  mite 
is  indicated  by  small  irregular  brownish  blisters  on  the  leaves.  Spray 
in  late  fall  or  early  spring  with  the  home-made  lime-sulfur  or  with 
the  concentrated  preparations,  1  gal.  to  10  gal.  water.  Recent  exi)eri- 
ments  show  this  treatment  to  be  effective. 

Borers.  —  The  only  certain  remedy  for  borers  is  to  dig  them  out,  or 
to  punch  them  out  with  a  wire.  Keep  the  space  about  the  base  of  the 
tree  clean,  and  watch  closely  for  any  sign  of  borers.  The  flat-headed 
borer  of  the  apple  works  under  the  bark  on  the  trunk  and  larger 


200  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

branches,  particularly  where  much  exposed  to  sun.  The  dead  and 
sunken  appearance  of  the  bark  indicates  its  presence.  The  round- 
headed  borer  works  in  the  wood  of  apples,  quinces,  and  other  trees ;  it 
should  be  hunted  for  every  spring  and  fall.  On  hard  land,  it  is  well 
to  dig  the  earth  away  from  the  base  of  the  tree  and  fill  the  space  with 
coal  ashes ;  this  will  make  the  work  of  examination  much  easier. 

The  peach  and  apricot  borer  is  the  larva  of  a  clear-wing  moth.  The 
larva  burrows  just  under  the  bark  near  or  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
ground ;  its  presence  is  indicated  by  a  gummy  mass  at  the  base  of 
the  tree.  Dig  out  the  borers  in  June  and  mound  up  the  trees.  At  the 
same  time,  apply  gas-tar  or  coal-tar  to  the  trunk  from  the  roots  to  a 
foot  or  more  above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

The  bronze  birch  borer  is  destroying  many  fine  white  birch  trees  in 
some  parts  of  the  country.  Its  presence  is  known  by  the  dying  of  the 
top  of  the  tree.  There  yet  is  no  known  way  of  preventing  this  borer 
from  attacking  white  birches,  and  the  only  practicable  and  effective 
method  so  far  found  for  checking  its  ravages  is  promptly  to  cut  and  burn 
the  infested  trees  in  autumn,  in  winter,  or  before  May  1.  There  is  no 
probability  of  saving  a  tree  when  the  top  branches  are  dead,  although 
cutting  out  the  dead  parts  may  stay  the  trouble  temporarily.  Cut 
and  burn  such  trees  at  once  and  thus  prevent  the  spread  of  the  insect. 

Bvd-moth  on  apple.  —  The  small  brown  caterpillars  with  black 
heads  devour  the  tender  leaves  and  flowers  of  the  opening  apple  buds  in 
early  spring.  Make  two  applications  of  either  1  lb.  Paris  green  or  4  lb. 
arsenate  of  lead  in  100  gal.  of  water ;  the  first  when  the  leaf-tips  ap- 
pear and  the  second  just  before  the  blossoms  open.  If  necessary, 
spray  again  after  the  blossoms  fall. 

Cabbage  and  caulijlower  insects.  —  The  green  caterpillars  that  eat 
cabbage  leaves  and  heads  hatch  from  eggs  laid  by  the  common  white 
butterfly  (Fig.  295).  There  are  several  broods  every  season.  If  plants 
are  not  heading,  spray  with  kerosene  emulsion  or  with  Paris  green  to 
which  the  sticker  has  been  added.     If  heading,  apply  hellebore. 

The  cabbage  aphides,  small  mealy  plant-lice,  are  especially  trouble- 
some during  cool,  dry  seasons  when  their  natural  enemies  are  less 
active.  Before  the  plants  begin  to  head,  spray  with  kerosene  emul- 
sion diluted  with  6  parts  of  water,  or  whale-oil  soap,  1  lb.  in  6  gal. 
of  water. 


XIII.   Planting  against  the  background.    Astilbe  and  campanula. 


PROTECTING   PLANTS  201 

The  white  maggots  that  feed  on  the  roots  hatch  from  eggs  laid 
near  the  plant  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  by  a  small  fly  somewhat 
resembling  the  common  house  fly.  Hollow  out  the  earth  slightly 
around  every  plant  and  freely  apply  carbolic  acid  emulsion  diluted 
with  30  parts  of  water.  Begin  the  treatment  early,  a  day  or  two 
after  the  plants  are  up  or  the  next  day  after  they  are  set  out.  Repeat 
the  application  every  7  to  10  days  until  the  latter  part  of  May.  It 
has  also  been  found  to  be  practicable  to  protect  the  plants  by  the  use 
of  tightly  fitting  cards  cut  from  tarred  paper.     (See  page  187.) 

Canker-worms.  —  These  caterpillars  are  small  measuring-worms  or 
loopers  that  defoliate  apple  trees  in  May  and  June  (Fig.  217).  The 
female  moths  are  wingless,  and  in  late  fall  or  early  spring  crawl  up 
the  trunks  of  the  trees  to  lay  their  eggs  on  the  branches.  Spray  thor- 
oughly once  or  tw^ice,  before  the  blossoms  open,  with  1  lb.  Paris  green 
or  4  lb.  arsenate  of  lead  in  100  gal.  of  water.  Repeat  the  application 
after  the  blossoms  fall.  Prevent  the  ascent  of  the  wingless  females  by 
means  of  sticky  bands  or  wire-screen  traps. 

Case-bearers  on  apple.  —  The  small  caterpillars  live  in  pistol-shaped 
or  cigar-shaped  cases,  about  i  in.  long.  They  appear  in  spring  on 
the  opening  buds  at  the  same  time  as  the  bud-moth  and  may  be  con- 
trolled by  the  same  means. 

Codlin-moth.  —  The  codlin-moth  lays  the  eggs  that  produce  the 
pinkish  caterpillar  which  causes  a  large  proportion  of  wormy  apples 
and  pears.  The  minute  eggs  are  laid  on  both  the  leaves  and  on 
the  skin  of  the  fruit.  Most  of  the  caterpillars  enter  the  apple  at  the 
blossom  end.  When  the  petals  fall,  the  calyx  is  open  and  this  is  the 
time  to  spray.  The  calyx  soon  closes  and  keeps  the  poison  inside 
ready  for  the  young  caterpillar's  first  meal.  After  the  calyx  has  closed, 
it  is  too  late  to  spray  effectively.  The  caterpillars  become  full  grown 
in  July  and  August,  leave  the  fruit,  crawl  down  on  the  trunk,  and  there 
most  of  them  spin  cocoons  under  the  loose  bark.  In  most  parts  of  the 
country  there  are  two  broods  annually.  Immediately  after  the  blos- 
soms fall,  spray  with  1  lb.  Paris  green  or  4  lb.  arsenate  of  lead  in  100 
gal.  of  water.  Repeat  the  application  about  3  wk.  later.  Use  burlap 
bands  on  trunks,  killing  all  caterpillars  under  them  every  ten  days 
from  July  1  to  August  1,  and  once  later  before  winter. 

Cucurbit  {cucumber,  melon,   and  squash)   insects. — Yellow,  black- 


202  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

striped  beetles  appear  in  numbers  and  attack  the  plants  as  soon 
as  they  are  up.  Plant  early  squashes  as  a  trap-crop  around  the  field. 
Protect  the  vines  with  screens  (Fig.  229)  until  they  begin  to  run,  or 
keep  them  covered  with  bordeaux  mixture,  thus  making  them  dis- 
tasteful to  the  beetles. 

Squash  vines  are  frequently  killed  by  a  white  caterpillar  that  bur- 
rows in  the  stem  near  the  base  of  the  plant.  Plant  a  few  early  squashes 
between  the  rows  of  the  late  varieties  as  a  trap-crop.  As  soon  as  the 
early  crop  is  harvested,  remove  and  burn  the  vines.  When  the  vines 
are  long  enough,  cover  them  at  the  joints  with  earth  in  order  to  develop 
secondary  root  systems  for  the  plant  in  case  the  main  stem  is  injured. 

Dark  green  plant-lice  feed  on  the  under  sides  of  squash  leaves, 
causing  them  to  curl  and  wither.  Spray  with  kerosene  emulsion 
diluted  with  6  parts  of  water.  It  is  necessary  thoroughly  to  cover  the 
under  side  of  the  leaves ;  the  sprayer,  therefore,  must  be  fitted  with 
an  upturned  nozzle.  Burn  the  vines  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  harvested 
and  keep  down  all  weeds.     Tobacco  sprays  may  be  used. 

The  stink-bug  is  very  troublesome  to  squashes.  The  rusty-black 
adult  emerges  from  hibernation  in  spring  and  lays  its  eggs  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaves.  The  nymphs  suck  the  sap  from  the  leaves 
and  stalks,  causing  serious  injury.  Trap  the  adults  under  boards  in 
the  spring.  Examine  the  leaves  for  the  smooth  shining  brownish 
eggs  and  destroy  them.  The  young  nymphs  may  be  killed  with 
kerosene  emulsion. 

Curculio.  —  The  adult  curculio  of  the  plum  and  peach  is  a  small 
snout-beetle  that  inserts  its  eggs  under  the  skin  of  the  fruit  and  then 
makes  a  characteristic  crescent-shaped  cut  beneath  it.  The  grub  feeds 
within  the  fruit  and  causes  it  to  drop.  When  full  grown,  it  enters  the 
ground,  changes  in  late  summer  to  the  beetle,  which  finally  goes  into 
hibernation  in  sheltered  places.  Spray  plums  just  after  blossoms  fall 
with  arsenate  of  lead,  6  to  8  lb.  in  100  gal.  of  water,  and  repeat  the 
application  in  about  a  week.  After  the  fruit  has  set,  jar  the  trees 
daily  over  a  sheet  or  curculio-catcher  and  destroy  the  beetles ;  this  is 
practically  the  only  procedure  for  peaches,  for  they  cannot  be  sprayed. 

The  quince  curculio  is  somewhat  larger  than  that  infesting  the  plum 
and  differs  in  its  life-history.  The  grubs  leave  the  fruits  in  the  fall 
and  enter  the  ground,  where  they  hibernate  and  transform  to  adults 


PROTECTING    PLANTS  203 

the  next  May,  June,  or  July,  depending  on  the  season.  When  the  adults 
appear,  jar  them  from  the  tree  on  sheets  or  curculio-catchers  and 
destroy  them.  To  determine  when  they  appear,  jar  a  few  trees  daily, 
beginning  the  latter  part  of  May  in  New  York. 

Currant-worm.  —  In  the  spring  the  small  green,  black-spotted  larvae 
feed  on  the  foliage  of  currants  and  gooseberries,  beginning  their  work 
on  the  lower  leaves.  A  second  brood  occurs  in  early  summer.  When 
worms  first  appear,  spray  with  1  lb.  Paris  green  or  4  lb.  arsenate  of 
lead  in  100  gal.  of  water.  Ordinarily  the  poison  should  be  combined 
with  bordeaux  (for  leaf -spot) . 

Cut-worms.  —  Probably  the  remedy  for  cut-worms  most  often  prac- 
ticed in  gardens,  and  which  cannot  fail  to  be  effective  when  faithfully 
carried  out,  is  hand-picking  with  lanterns  at  night  or  digging  them  out 
from  around  the  base  of  the  infested  plants  during  the  day.  Bushels 
of  cut-worms  have  been  gathered  in  this  way,  and  with  profit.  When 
from  some  cause  success  does  not  attend  the  use  of  the  poisoned  baits, 
to  be  discussed  next,  hand-picking  is  the  only  other  method  yet  recom- 
mended that  can  be  relied  upon  to  check  cut-worm  depredations. 

The  best  methods  yet  devised  for  killing  cut-worms  in  any  situation 
are  the  poisoned  baits,  using  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead  for  the 
purpose.  Poisoned  bunches  of  clover  or  weeds  have  been  thoroughly 
tested,  even  by  the  wagon-load,  over  large  areas,  and  nearly  all  have 
reported  them  very  effective;  lamb's  quarters  (pigweed),  pepper- 
grass,  and  mullein  are  among  the  weeds  especially  attractive  to  cut- 
worms. On  small  areas  the  making  of  the  baits  is  done  by  hand,  but 
they  have  been  prepared  on  a  large  scale  by  spraying  the  plants  in  the 
field,  cutting  them  with  a  scythe  or  machine,  and  jDitching  them  from 
wagons  in  small  bunches  wherever  desired.  Distributed  a  few  feet 
apart,  between  rows  of  garden  plants  at  nightfall,  they  have  attracted 
and  killed  enough  cut-worms  often  to  save  a  large  proportion  of 
the  crop ;  if  the  bunches  can  be  covered  with  a  shingle,  they  will 
keep  fresher  much  longer.  The  fresher  the  baits,  and  the  more  thor- 
oughly the  baiting  is  done,  the  more  cut-worms  one  can  destroy.  How- 
ever, it  may  sometimes  happen  that  a  sufficient  quantity  of  such  green 
succulent  plants  cannot  be  obtained  early  enough  in  the  season  in 
some  locaHties.  In  this  case,  and  we  are  not  sure  but  in  all  cases,  the 
poisoned  bran  mash  can  be  used  to  the  best  advantage.     It  is  easily 


204  MANUAL   OF  GARDENING 

made  and  applied  at  any  time,  is  not  expensive,  and  thus  far  the 
results  show  that  it  is  a  very  attractive  and  effective  bait.  A  table- 
spoonful  can  be  quickly  dropped  around  the  base  of  each  cabbage  or 
tomato  plant;  small  amounts  may  be  easily  scattered  along  the 
rows  of  onions  and  turnips,  or  a  little  dropped  on  a  hill  of  corn  or 
cucumbers. 

The  best  time  to  apply  these  poisoned  baits  is  two  or  three  days 
before  any  plants  have  come  up  or  been  set  out  in  the  garden.  If  the 
ground  has  been  properly  prepared,  the  worms  will  have  had  but  little 
to  eat  for  several  days  and  they  will  thus  seize  the  first  opportunity  to 
appease  their  hunger  upon  the  baits,  and  wholesale  destruction  will 
result.  The  baits  should  always  be  applied  at  this  time  wherever 
cut-worms  are  expected.  But  it  is  not  too  late  usually  to  save  most  of 
a  crop  after  the  pests  have  made  their  presence  known  by  cutting  off 
some  of  the  plants.     Act  promptly  and  use  the  baits  freely. 

For  mechanical  means  of  protecting  from  cut-worms,  see  pp.  186-7. 
Elm-leaf  beetle.  —  Generally  speaking  one  thorough 
and  timely  spraying  is  ample  to  control  the  elm-leaf 
beetle  (Fig.  235).     Use  arsenate  of  lead,  Ih  lb.  to  25 
gal.,  and  make  the  application  to  the  under  side 
of  the  leav^es  the  latter  part  of  May  or  very  early  in 
June  in  New  York.     Occasionally,  when  the  beetle  is 
235     Elm -leaf    ^^^  abundant,  due  in  all  probability  to  no  spraying 
beetle,  adult,    in  earlier  years,  it  may  be  advisable  to  make  a  second 
somewhat  en-    application,  and  the  same  may  be  true  when  conditions 
Howard).^   ^^    necessitate  the  application  earlier  than  when  it  will 
be  most  efficacious.     This  latter  condition  is  likely  to 
obtain  wherever  a  large  number  of  trees  must  be  treated  with  inade- 
quate outfit. 

Oyster-shell  scale.  —  This  is  an  elongate  scale  or  bark-louse,  \  in. 
in  length,  resembling  an  oyster  shell  in  shape  and  often  incrusting  the 
bark  of  apple  twigs.  It  hibernates  as  minute  white  eggs  under  the  old 
scales.  The  eggs  hatch  during  the  latter  part  of  May  or  in  June,  the 
date  depending  on  the  season.  When  these  young  appear,  spray  with 
kerosene  emulsion,  diluted  with  6  parts  of  water,  or  whale-oil  or  any  good 
soap,  1  lb.  in  4  or  5  gal.  of  water.  When  trees  are  regularly  sprayed 
with  lime-sulfur  for  San  Jose  Scale,  this  insect  is  also  held  in  control. 


PROTECTING   PLANTS  206 

Pear  insects.  —  The  psylla  is  one  of  the  most  serious  insects  affecting 
the  pear  tree.  It  is  a  minute,  yellowish,  flat-bodied,  sucking  insect 
often  found  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  and  fruit  early  in  the  season.  They 
develop  into  minute  cicada-like  jumping-hce.  The  young  psyllas 
secrete  a  large  quantity  of  honey-dew  in  which  a  peculiar  black  fungus 
grows,  giving  the  bark  a  characteristic  sooty  appearance.  There  may 
be  four  broods  annually  and  the  trees  are  often  seriously  injured. 
After  the  blossoms  fall,  spray  with  kerosene  emulsion,  diluted  with  6 
parts  of  water,  or  whale-oil  soap,  1  lb.  in  4  or  5  gal.  of  water.  Repeat 
the  application  at  intervals  of  3  to  7  days  until  the  insects  are  under 
control.     Tobacco  extracts  may  be  tried. 

The  pear  slug  is  a  small,  slimy,  dark  green  larva  which  skeletonizes 
the  leaves  in  June,  and  a  second  brood  appears  in  August.  Spray 
thoroughly  with  1  lb.  Paris  green,  or  4  lb.  arsenate  of  lead,  in  100  gal. 
of  water. 

Potato  insects.  —  The  Colorado  potato  beetle,  or  potato-bug,  emerges 
from  hibernation  in  the  spring  and  lays  masses  of  orange  eggs  on  the 
underside  of  the  leaves.  The  larvae  are  known  as  "slugs"  and  "soft- 
shells"  and  cause  most  of  the  injury  to  the  vines.  Spray  with  Paris 
green,  2  lb.  in  100  gal.  of  water,  or  arsenite  of  soda  combined  with 
bordeaux  mixture.  It  may  sometimes  be  necessary  to  use  a  greater 
strength  of  the  poison,  particularly  on  the  older  "slugs." 

The  small  black  flea-beetles  riddle  the  leaves  with  holes  and  cause 
the  foliage  to  die.  Bordeaux  mixture  as  applied  for  potato  blight 
protects  the  plants  by  making  them  repellent  to  the  beetles. 

Raspberry,  blackberry,  and  dewberry  insects.  —  The  greenish,  spiny 
larva?  of  the  saw-fly  feed  on  the  tender  leaves  in  spring.  Spray  with 
Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead,  or  apply  hellebore. 

The  cane-borer  is  a  grub  that  burrows  down  through  the  canes, 
causing  them  to  die.  In  laying  her  eggs,  the  adult  beetle  girdles  the 
tip  of  the  cane  with  a  ring  of  punctures,  causing  it  to  wither  and  droop. 
In  midsummer,  cut  off  and  destroy  the  drooping  tips. 

Red  spider.  —  Minute  reddish  mites  on  the  under  sides  of  leaves  in 
greenhouses  and  sometimes  out  of  doors  in  dry  weather.  Syringe  oflf 
the  plants  with  clear  water  two  or  three  times  a  week,  taking  care  not 
to  drench  the  beds.  Red  spider  and  black  mite  may  be  treated  with 
sulfocide. 

Rose  Insects.  —  The  green  plant-lice  usually  work  on  the  buds,  and 


206  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

the  yellow  leaf -hoppers  feed  on  the  leaves.  Spray,  whenever  necessary, 
with  kerosene  emulsion,  diluted  with  6  parts  of  water,  or  whale-oil  or 
any  good  soap,  1  lb.  in  5  or  6  gal.  of  water ;  or  a  tobacco  extract. 

The  rose-chafer  is  often  a  most  pernicious  pest  on  roses,  grapes,  and 
other  plants.  The  ungainly,  long-legged,  grayish  beetles  occur  in  sandy 
regions  and  often  swarm  into  vineyards  and  destroy  the  blossoms  and 
foliage.  Spray  thoroughly  with  arsenate  of  lead,  10  lb.  in  100  gal.  of 
water.  Repeat  the  application  if  necessary.  (See  under  Rose  on 
page  395.) 

San  Jose  scale.  —  This  pernicious  scale  is  nearly  circular  in  outline 
and  about  the  size  of  a  small  pin  head,  with  a  raised  center.  When 
abundant,  it  forms  a  crust  on  the  branches  and  causes  small  red 
spots  on  the  fruit.  It  multiplies  with  marvelous  rapidity,  there  being 
three  or  four  broods  annually  in  New  York,  and  each  mother  scale  may 
give  birth  to  several  hundred  young.  The  young  are  born  alive,  and 
breeding  continues  until  late  autumn  when  all  stages  are  killed  by  the 
cold  weather  except  the  tiny  half-grown  black  scales,  many  of  which 
hibernate  safely.  Spray  thoroughly  in  the  fall  after  the  leaves  drop, 
or  early  in  the  spring  before  growth  begins,  with  lime-sulfur  wash,  or 
miscible  oil  1  gal.  in  10  gal.  of  water.  When  badly  infested,  make  two 
applications,  one  in  the  fall  and  another  in  the  spring.  In  case  of  large 
old  trees,  25  per  cent  crude  oil  emulsion  should  be  apphed  just  as 
the  buds  are  swelling.     Lime-sulfur  is  now  the  standard  remedy. 

In  nurseries,  after  the  trees  are  dug,  fumigate  with  hydrocyanic 
acid  gas,  using  1  oz.  of  potassium  cyanide  for  every  100  cu.  ft.  of 
space.  Continue  the  fumigation  from  one-half  to  three-quarters  of 
an  hour.  Do  not  fumigate  the  trees  when  they  are  wet,  since  the  pres- 
ence of  moisture  renders  them  Hable  to  injury. 

Tent-caterpillar.  —  The  insect  hibernates  in  the  egg  stage.  The 
eggs  are  glued  in  ring-Uke  brownish  masses  around  the  smaller  twigs, 
where  they  may  be  easily  found  and  destroyed.  The  caterpillars 
appear  in  early  spring,  devour  the  tender  leaves,  and  build  unsightly 
nests  on  the  smaller  branches.  This  pest  is  usually  controlled  by  the 
treatment  recommended  for  the  codhn-moth.  Destroy  the  nests  by 
burning  or  by  wiping  out  when  small.     Often  a  bad  pest  on  apple  trees. 

Violet  gall-fly.  —  Violets  grown  under  glass  are  often  greatly  injured 
by  a  very  small  maggot,  which  causes  the  edges  of  the  leaves  to  curl, 


PROTECTING  PLANTS  207 

turn  yellowish,  and  die.  The  adult  is  a  very  minute  fly  resembling  a 
mosquito.  Pick  off  and  destroy  infested  leaves  as  soon  as  discovered. 
Fumigation  is  not  advised  for  this  insect  or  for  red-spider. 

White-fly.  —  The  minute  white-flies  are  common  on  greenhouse 
plants  and  often  in  summer  on  plants  about  gardens  near  greenhouses. 
The  nymphs  are  small  greenish,  scale-like  insects  found  on  the  under 
side  of  the  leaves ;  the  adults  are  minute,  white,  mealy-winged  flies. 
Spray  with  kerosene  emulsion  or  whale-oil  soap ;  or  if  infesting  cucum- 
bers or  tomatoes,  fumigate  over  night  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas, 
using  1  oz.  of  potassium  cyanide  to  each  1000  cu.  ft.  of  space.  (See 
page  188.) 

White  grubs.  —  The  large  curved  white  grub'fe  that  are  so  trouble- 
some in  lawns  and  strawberry  fields  are  the  larvae  of  the  common  June 
beetles.  They  live  in  the  ground,  feeding  on  the  roots  of  grasses  and 
weeds.  Dig  out  grubs  from  beneath  infested  plants.  Thorough  early 
fall  cultivation  of  land  intended  for  strawberries  will  destroy  many  of 
the  pupse.  In  lawns,  remove  the  sod,  destroy  the  grubs,  and  make 
new  sward,  when  the  infestation  is  bad. 

Treatment  for  some  of  the  common  plant  diseases. 

The  following  advice  (mostly  adapted  from  Whetzel  and 
Stewart)  covers  the  most  frequent  types  of  fungous  disease 
appearing  to  the  home  gardener.  Many  other  kinds,  however, 
will  almost  certainly  attract  his  attention  the  first  season  if  he 
looks  closely.  The  standard  remedy  is  bordeaux  mixture; 
but  because  this  material  discolors  the  foliage  the  carbonate  of 
copper  is  sometimes  used  instead.  The  treatments  here  recom- 
mended are  for  New  York;  but  it  should  not  be  difficult  to 
apply  the  dates  elsewhere.  The  gardener  must  supplement  all 
advice  of  this  character  with  his  own  judgment  and  experience, 
and  take  his  own  risks. 

Apple  scab.  —  Usually  most  evident  on  the  fruit,  forming  blotches 
and  scabs.  Spray  with  bordeaux,  3-3-50,  or  lime-sulfur,  1-40 ;  first,  just 
before  the  blossoms  open;  second,  as  the  blossoms  fall;  third,  10  to  14 


208  MANUAL    OF    GARDENING 

days  after  the  blossoms  fall.  The  second  spraying  seems  to  be  the  most 
important.     Always  apply  before  rains,  not  after. 

Asparagus  rust.  —  The  most  common  and  destructive  disease  of 
asparagus,  producing  reddish  or  black  pustules  on  the  stems  and 
branches.  Late  in  the  fall,  burn  all  affected  plants.  Fertilize  liberally 
and  cultivate  thoroughly.  During  the  cutting  season,  permit  no  plants 
to  mature  and  cut  all  wild  asparagus  plants  in  vicinity  once  a  week. 
Rust  may  be  partially  controlled  by  spraying  with  bordeaux,  5-5-50, 
containing  a  sticker  of  resin-sal-soda  soap,  but  it  is  a  difficult  and  ex- 
pensive operation  and  probably  not  profitable  except  on  large  acreage. 
Begin  spraying  after  cutting  as  soon  as  new  shoots  are  8  to  10  in. 
high  and  repeat  once  Or  twice  a  week  until  about  September  15.  Dust- 
ing with  sulfur  has  proved  effective  in  California. 

Cabbage  and  cauliflower  diseases.  —  Black-rot  is  a  bacterial  disease; 
the  plants  drop  their  leaves  and  fail  to  head.  Practice  crop  rotation ; 
soak  seed  15  min.  in  a  solution  made  by  dissolving  one  corrosive  subli- 
mate tablet  in  a  pint  of  water.  Tablets  may  be  bought  at  drug 
stores. 

Club-root  or  club-foot  is  a  well-known  disease.  The  parasite  lives 
in  the  soil.  Practice  crop  rotation.  Set  only  healthy  plants.  Do  not 
use  manure  containing  cabbage  refuse.  If  necessary  to  use  infested 
land,  apply  good  stone  lime,  2  to  5  tons  per  acre.  Apply  at  least  as 
early  as  the  autumn  before  planting;  two  to  four  years  is  better. 
Lime  the  seed-bed  in  same  way. 

Carnation  rust.  —  This  disease  may  be  recognized  by  the  brown, 
powdery  pustules  on  the  stem  and  leaves.  Plant  only  the  varieties  least 
affected  by  it.  Take  cuttings  only  from  healthy  plants.  Spray  (in 
the  field,  once  a  week;  in  the  greenhouse,  once  in  two  weeks)  with 
copper  sulfate,  1  lb.  to  20  gal.  of  water.  Keep  the  greenhouse  air  as 
dry  and  cool  as  is  compatible  with  good  growth.  Keep  the  foliage  free 
from  moisture.  Train  the  plants  so  as  to  secure  a  free  circulation  of 
air  among  them. 

Chestnut.  —  The  bark  disease  of  chestnut  has  become  very  serious 
in  southeastern  New  York,  causing  the  bark  to  sink  and  die  and  killing 
the  tree.  Cutting  out  the  diseased  places  and  treating  aseptically 
may  be  useful  in  light  cases,  but  badly  infected  trees  are  incurable, 
in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge.     Inspection  of  nursery  stock 


PROTECTING   PLANTS  209 

and  burning  of  affected  trees  is  the  only  procedure  now  to  be  recom- 
mended. The  disease  is  reported  in  New  England  and  western  New 
York. 

Chrysanthemum  leaf-spoL  —  Spray  with  bordeaux,  5-5-50,  every 
ten  days  or  often  enough  to  protect  new  foliage.  Ammoniacal  copper 
carbonate  may  be  used,  but  it  is  not  so  effective. 

Cucumber  diseases.  — ''W\\i"  is  a  disease  caused  by  bacteria  that 
are  distributed  chiefly  by  striped  cucumber  beetles.  Destroy  the 
beetles  or  drive  them  away  by  thorough  spraying  with  bordeaux, 
5-5-50.  Gather  and  destroy  all  wilted  leaves  and  plants.  The  most 
that  can  be  expected  is  that  the  loss  may  be  slightly  reduced. 

Downy  mildew  is  a  serious  fungous  disease  of  the  cucumber  known 
among  growers  as  "the  blight."  The  leaves  become  mottled  with 
yellow,  show  dead  spots,  and  then  dry  up.  Spray  with  bordeaux, 
5-5-50.  Begin  spraying  when  the  plants  begin  to  run,  and  repeat  every 
10  to  14  days  throughout  the  season. 

Currant  diseases.  —  Leaf-spots  and  anthracnose  are  caused  by  two 
or  three  different  fungi.  The  leaves  become  spotted,  turn  yellow,  and 
fall  prematurely.  They  may  be  controlled  by  three  to  five  sprayings 
with  bordeaux,  5-5-50,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  diseases  are 
sufficiently  destructive  on  the  average  to  warrant  so  much  expense. 

Gooseberry  powdery  mildew.  —  The  fruit  and  leaves  are  covered 
with  a  dirty  white  growth  of  fungus.  In  setting  a  new  plantation, 
choose  a  site  where  the  land  is  well  underdrained  and  where  there  is 
a  good  circulation  of  air.  Cut  away  drooping  branches.  Keep  the 
ground  underneath  free  from  weeds.  Spray  with  potassium  sulfide, 
1  oz.  to  2  gal. ;  begin  when  the  buds  are  breaking  and  repeat  every 
7  to  10  days  until  the  fruit  is  gathered.  Powdery  mildew  is  very  de- 
structive to  the  European  varieties. 

Grape  black-rot.  —  Remove  all  "mummies"  that  cling  to  the  arms 
at  trimming  time.  Plow  early,  turning  under  all  old  mummies  and 
diseased  leaves.  Rake  all  refuse  under  the  vine  into  the  last  furrow 
and  cover  with  the  grape  hoe.  This  cannot  be  too  thoroughly  done. 
The  disease  is  favored  by  wet  weather  and  weeds  or  grass  in  the  vine- 
yard. Use  surface  cultivation  and  keep  down  all  weeds  and  grass. 
Keep  the  vines  well  sprouted ;  if  necessary  sprout  twice.  Spray  with 
bordeaux  mixture,  4-4-50,  until  the  middle  of  July,  after  that  with 
p 


210  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

ammoniacal  copper  carbonate.  The  number  of  sprayings  will  vary 
with  the  season.  Make  the  first  application  when  the  third  leaf  shows. 
Infections  take  place  with  each  rain,  and  occur  throughout  the  grow- 
ing season.  The  foHage  should  be  protected  by  a  coating  of  the  spray 
before  every  rain.     The  new  growth  especially  should  be  well  sprayed. 

Hollyhock  rust.  —  Fig.  212.  Eradicate  the  wild  mallow  {Malva  rotun- 
difolia).  Remove  all  hollyhock  leaves  as  soon  as  they  show  signs  of 
rust.  Spray  several  times  with  bordeaux  mixture,  taking  care  to  cover 
both  sides  of  leaves. 

Lettuce  drop  or  rot.  —  This  is  a  fungous  disease  often  destructive 
in  greenhouses,  discovered  by  the  sudden  wilting  of  the  plants.  It  is 
completely  controlled  by  steam  sterihzation  of  the  soil  to  the  depth  of 
two  inches  or  more.  If  it  is  not  feasible  to  sterihze  the  soil,  use  fresh 
soil  for  every  crop  of  lettuce. 

Muskmelon  diseases.  —  "Blight"  is  a  very  troublesome  disease. 
The  leaves  show  angular  dead-brown  spots,  then  dry  up  and  die ;  the 
fruit  often  fails  to  ripen  and  lacks  flavor.  It  is  caused  by  the  same 
fungus  as  is  the  downy  mildew  of  cucumbers.  While  bordeaux  has 
proved  effective  in  controlling  the  downy  mildew  on  cucumbers,  it 
seems  to  be  of  Httle  value  in  lessening  the  same  disease  on  melons. 

"  Wilt "  is  the  same  as  cucumber  wilt ;  treatment  same. 

Peach  diseases.  —  Brown-rot  is  difficult  to  control.  Plant  resistant 
varieties.  Prune  the  trees  so  as  to  let  in  sunlight  and  air.  Thin  the 
fruit  well.  As  often  as  possible  pick  and  destroy  all  rotten  fruits. 
In  the  fall  destroy  all  remaining  fruits.  Spray  with  self-boiled  lime- 
sulfur,  8-8-50,  to  which  2  lb.  arsenate  lead  is  added  to  the  50  gals., 
making  first  application  as  calyx  is  shedding,  second  2-3  weeks  later, 
third  one  month  before  fruit  ripens,  but  omitting  the  arsenate. 

Leaf-curl  is  a  disease  in  which  the  leaves  become  swollen  and  dis- 
torted in  spring  and  drop  during  June  and  July  (Fig.  213).  Elberta  is 
an  especially  susceptible  variety.  Easily  and  completely  controlled  by 
spraying  the  trees  once,  before  the  buds  swell,  with  bordeaux,  5-5-50, 
or  with  the  lime-sulfur  mixtures  used  for  San  Jose  scale. 

Black-spot  or  scab  often  proves  troublesome  in  wet  seasons  and 
particularly  in  damp  or  sheltered  situations.  While  this  disease  at- 
tacks the  twigs  and  leaves,  it  is  most  conspicuous  and  injurious  on  the 
fruit,  w^here  it  appears  as  dark  spots  or  blotches.     In  severe  attacks 


PROTECTING    PLANTS  211 

the  fruit  cracks.  In  the  treatment  of  this  disease  it  is  of  prime  im- 
portance to  secure  a  free  circulation  of  air  about  the  fruit.  AccompHsh 
■  this  by  avoiding  low  sites,  by  pruning,  and  by  removal  of  windbreaks. 
Spray  as  for  brown-rot,  with  lime-sulfur,  8-8-50. 

Yellows  is  a  so-called  "  physiological  disease."  Cause  unknown. 
Contagious,  and  serious  in  some  localities.  Known  by  the  premature 
ripening  of  the  fruit,  by  red  streaks  and  spots  in  the  flesh,  and  by  the 
peculiar  clusters  of  sickly,  yellowish  shoots  that  appear  on  the  limbs 
here  and  there  (Fig.  215) .  Dig  out  and  burn  diseased  trees  as  soon  as 
discovered. 

Pear  diseases.  —  Fire-blight  kills  the  twigs  and  branches,  on  which 
the  leaves  suddenly  blacken  and  die  but  do  not  fall.  It  also  produces 
cankers  on  the  trunk  and  large  limbs.  Prune  out  blighted  branches  as 
soon  as  discovered,  cutting  6  to  8  in.  below  the  lowest  evidences  of 
the  disease.  Clean  out  limb  and  body  cankers.  Disinfect  all  large 
wounds  with  corrosive  sublimate  solution,  1  to  1000,  and  cover  with 
coat  of  paint.  Avoid  forcing  a  rapid,  succulent  growth.  Plant  the 
varieties  least  affected. 

Pear  scab  is  very  similar  to  apple  scab.  It  is  very  destructive  to 
some  varieties,  as,  for  example,  Flemish  Beauty  and  Seckel.  Spray 
three  times  with  lime-sulfur,  1-50,  or  bordeaux,  3-3-50,  following  the 
general  methods  employed  for  apple  scab. 

Plum  and  cherry  diseases.  —  Black-knot  is  a  fungous  disease.  The 
spores  of  the  fungus  are  carried  from  tree  to  tree  by  the  wind  and  thus 
spread  the  infection.  Cut  out  and  burn  all  knots  as  soon  as  discovered. 
See  that  the  knots  are  removed  from  all  plum  and  cherry  trees  in  the 
neighborhood. 

Leaf-spot  is  a  disease  in  which  the  leaves  become  covered  with  red- 
dish or  brown  spots  and  fall  prematurely  (Fig.  211) ;  badly  affected  trees 
winterkill.  Often,  the  dead  spots  drop  out,  leaving  clear-cut  holes. 
Bordeaux,  5-5-50,  or  lime-sulfur,  1-40.  For  cherries,  four  applica- 
tions :  first,  just  before  blossoms  open ;  second,  when  fruit  is  free  from 
calyx ;  third,  two  weeks  later ;  fourth,  two  weeks  after  third.  In 
plums  it  may  be  controlled  by  two  or  three  applications  of  bordeaux, 
3-3-50,  or  self-boiled  lime-sulfur.  Make  the  first  one  about  ten  days 
after  the  blossoms  fall  and  the  others  at  intervals  of  about  three  weeks. 
This  applies  to  European  varieties.  Japan  plums  should  not  be 
sprayed  with  bordeaux. 


212  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

Potato  diseases.  —  There  are  different  kinds  of  potato  blight  and  rot. 
The  most  important  are  early  blight  and  late  bhght  —  both  fungous 
diseases.  Early  blight  affects  only  the  foliage.  Late  blight  kills  the 
fohage  and  often  rots  the  tubers.  Two  serious  troubles  often  mis- 
taken for  blight  are :  (1)  Tip  burn,  the  browning  of  the  tips  and  mar- 
gins of  the  leaves  due  to  dry  weather;  and  (2)  flea-beetle  injury,  in 
which  the  leaves  show  numerous  small  holes  and  then  dry  up.  The 
loss  from  blight  and  flea-beetles  is  enormous  —  often,  one-fourth  to 
one-half  the  crop.  For  blight-rot  and  flea-beetles  spray  with  bordeaux, 
5-5-50.  Begin  w^hen  the  plants  are  6  to  8  in.  high  and  repeat  every 
10  to  14  days  during  the  season,  making  5  to  7  appHcations  in  all. 
Use  40  to  100  gal.  per  acre  at  each  application.  Under  conditions 
exceptionally  favorable  to  blight  it  will  pay  to  spray  as  often  as  once 
a  week. 

Scab  is  caused  by  a  fungus  that  attacks  the  surface  of  the  tubers. 
It  is  carried  over  on  diseased  tubers  and  in  the  soil.  In  general,  when 
land  becomes  badly  infested  with  scab,  it  is  best  to  plant  it  with  other 
crops  for  several  years.     (See  page  190.) 

Raspberry  diseases.  —  Anthracnose  is  very  destructive  to  black 
raspberries,  but  not  often  injurious  to  the  red  varieties.  It  is  detected 
by  the  circular  or  elliptical  gray  scab-like  spots  on  the  canes.  Avoid 
taking  young  plants  from  diseased  plantations.  Remove  all  old  canes 
and  badly  diseased  new  ones  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  gathered.  Although 
spraying  with  bordeaux,  5-5-50,  will  control  the  malady,  the  treat- 
ment may  not  be  profitable.  If  spraying  seems  advisable,  make  the 
first  application  when  the  new  canes  are  6  to  8  in.  high  and  follow 
with  two  more  at  intervals  of  10  to  14  days. 

Cane-blight  or  wilt  is  a  destructive  disease  affecting  both  red  and 
black  varieties.  Fruiting  canes  suddenly  wilt  and  die.  It  is  caused 
by  a  fungus  which  attacks  the  cane  at  some  point  and  kills  the  bark 
and  wood,  thereby  causing  the  parts  above  to  die.  No  successful 
treatment  is  known.  In  making  new  settings,  use  only  plants  from 
healthy  plantations.  Remove  the  fruiting  canes  as  soon  as  the  fruit 
is  gathered. 

Red-rust  is  often  serious  on  black  varieties,  but  does  not  affect  red 
ones.  It  is  the  same  as  red  rust  of  blackberry.  Dig  up  and  destroy 
affected  plants. 


PROTECTING  PLANTS  213 

Rose  diseases.  —  Black  leaf-spot  is  one  of  the  commonest  diseases 
of  the  rose.  It  causes  the  leaves  to  fall  prematurely.  Spray  with 
bordeaux,  5-5-50,  beginning  as  soon  as  the  first  spots  appear  on  the 
leaves.  Two  or  three  applications  at  intervals  of  ten  days  will  very 
largely  control  the  disease.  Ammoniacal  copper  carbonate  may  be 
used  on  roses  grown  under  glass.  Apply  once  a  week  until  disease  is 
under  control. 

For  mildew  on  greenhouse  roses,  keep  the  steam  pipes  painted  with 
a  paste  made  of  equal  parts  lime  and  sulfur  mixed  up  with  water. 
The  mildew  is  a  surface-feeding  fungus  and  is  killed  by  the  fumes  of 
the  sulfur.  Outdoor  roses  that  become  infested  with  the  mildew  may 
be  dusted  with  sulfur,  or  sprayed  with  a  solution  of  potassium  sulfide, 
1  oz.  to  3  gal.  water.  Spray  or  dust  with  the  sulfur  two  or  three 
times  at  intervals  of  a  week  or  ten  days. 

Strawberry  leaf-spot.  —  The  most  common  and  serious  fungous 
disease  of  the  strawberry;  also  called  rust  and  leaf-blight.  The  leaves 
show  spots  which  at  first  are  of  a  deep  purple  color,  but  later  enlarge 
and  the  center  becomes  gray  or  nearly  white.  The  fungus  passes  the 
winter  in  the  old  diseased  leaves  that  fall  to  the  ground.  In  setting 
new  plantations,  remove  all  diseased  leaves  from  the  plants  before  they 
are  taken  to  the  field.  Soon  after  growth  begins,  spray  the  newly  set 
plants  with  bordeaux,  5-5-50.  Make  three  or  four  additional  spray- 
ings during  the  season.  The  following  spring,  spray  just  before  blos- 
soming and  again  10  to  14  days  later.  If  the  bed  is  to  be  fruited  a 
second  time,  mow  the  plants  and  burn  over  the  beds  as  soon  as  the 
fruit  is  gathered.     Plant  resistant  varieties. 

Tomato  leaf-spot.  — The  distinguishing  character  of  this  disease  is  that 
it  begins  on  the  lower  leaves  and  works  towards  the  top,  killing  the  foliage 
as  it  goes.  It  is  controlled  with  difficulty  because  it  is  carried  over 
winter  in  the  diseased  leaves  and  tops  that  fall  to  the  ground.  When 
setting  out  plants,  pinch  off  all  the  lower  leaves  that  touch  the  ground ; 
also  any  leaves  that  show  suspicious-looking  dead-spots.  The  trouble 
often  starts  in  the  seed-bed.  Spray  plants  very  thoroughly  with 
bordeaux,  5-5-50,  beginning  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  set  out.  Stake 
and  tie  up  for  greater  convenience  in  spraying.  Spray  under  side  of 
the  leaves.     Spray  ever^  week  or  ten  days. 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE  GROWING  OF  THE  ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS  —  THE  CLASSES  OF 
PLANTS,    AND    LISTS 

In  choosing  the  kinds  of  plants  for  the  main  grounds  the 
gardener  should  carefully  distinguish  two  categories,  —  those 
plants  to  compose  the  structural  masses  and  design  of  the  place, 
and  those  that  are  to  be  used  for  mere  ornament.  The  chief 
merits  to  be  sought  in  the  former  are  good  foliage,  pleasing 
form  and  habit,  shades  of  green,  and  color  of  winter  twigs. 
The  merits  of  the  latter  lie  chiefly  in  flowers  or  colored  foliage. 

Each  of  these  categories  should  be  again  divided.  Of  plants 
for  the  main  design,  there  might  be  discussion  of  trees  for  a 
windbreak,  of  trees  for  shade;  of  shrubs  for  screens  or  heavy 
plantings,  for  the  lighter  side  plantings,  and  for  incidental 
masses  about  the  buildings  or  on  the  lawn;  and  perhaps  also  of 
vines  for  porches  and  arbors,  of  evergreens,  of  hedges,  and  of 
the  heavier  herbaceous  masses. 

Plants  used  for  mere  embellishment  or  ornamentation  may 
be  ranged  again  into  categories  for  permanent  herbaceous 
borders,  for  display  beds,  ribbon  edgings,  annuals  for  tempo- 
rary effects,  foliage  beds,  plants  for  adding  color  and  emphasis 
to  the  shrubbery  masses,  plants  desired  to  be  grown  as  single 
specimens  or  as  curiosities,  and  plants  for  porch-boxes  and 
window-gardens. 

Having  now  briefly  suggested  the  uses  of  the  plants,  we  shall 
proceed  to  discuss  them  in  reference  to  the  making  of  home 
grounds.     This  chapter  contains  a  brief  consideration  of 

214 


THE   GROWING    OF   THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS       215 

Planting  for  immediate  effect, 

The  use  of  "foliage"  trees  and  shrubs, 

Windbreaks  and  screens, 

The  making  of  hedges. 

The  borders, 

The  flower-beds, 

Aquatic  and  bog  plants. 

Rockeries  and  alpine  plants; 

and  then  it  runs  into  nine  sub-chapters,  as  follows :  — 

1.  Plants  for  carpet-beds,  p.  234; 

2.  The  annual  plants,  p.  241; 

3.  Hardy  herbaceous  perennials,  p.  260; 

4.  Bulbs  and  tubers,  p.  281; 

5.  The  shrubbery,  p.  290; 

6.  Climbing  plants,  p.  307; 

7.  Trees  for  lawns  and  streets,  p.  319; 

8.  Coniferous  evergreen  trees  and  shrubs,  p.  331; 

9.  Window-gardens,  p.  336; 

and  then,  in  Chapter  VIII,  the  particular  cultures  of  plants 
needing  special  care  are  briefly  discussed. 

Planting  for  immediate  effect. 

It  is  always  legitimate,  and,  in  fact,  desirable,  to  plant  for 
immediate  effect.  One  may  plant  very  thickly  of  rapid-grow- 
ing trees  and  shrubs  for  this  purpose.  It  is  a  fact,  however, 
that  very  rapid-growing  trees  usually  lack  strong  or  artistic 
character.  Other  and  better  trees  should  be  planted  with  them 
and  the  featureless  kinds  be  gradually  removed.     (Page  41.) 

The  effect  of  a  new  place  may  be  greatly  heightened  by  a  dex- 
terous use  of  annuals  and  other  herbaceous  stuff  in  the  shrub 
plantations.  Until  the  shrubbery  covers  the  ground,  tempo- 
rary plants  may  be  grown  among  them.     Subtropical  beds 


216  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

may  give  a  very  desirable  temporary  finish  to  places  that  are 
pretentious  enough  to  make  them  seem  in  keeping. 

Very  rough,  hard,  sterile,  and  stony  banks  may  sometimes 
be  covered  with  coltsfoot  {Tussilago  Farfara),  sacaline,  Rubus 
cratcegifolius,  comfrey,  and  various  wild  growths  that  persist  in 
similar  places  in  the  neighborhood. 

However  much  the  planter  may  plan  for  immediate  effects, 
the  beauty  of  trees  and  shrubs  comes  with  maturity  and  age, 
and  this  beauty  is  often  delayed,  or  even  obliterated,  by  shear- 
ing and  excessive  heading-back.  At  first,  bushes  are  stiff  and 
erect,  but  when  they  attain  their  full  character,  they  usually 
droop  or  roll  over  to  meet  the  sward.  Some  bushes  make 
mounds  of  green  much  sooner  than  others  that  may  even  be 
closely  related.  Thus  the  common  yellow-bell  {Forsythia  vir- 
dissima)  remains  stiff  and  hard  for  some  years,  whereas  F. 
suspensa  makes  a  rolling  heap  of  green  in  two  or  three  years. 
Quick  informal  effects  can  also  be  secured  by  the  use  of  HalFs 
Japanese  honeysuckle  {Lonicera  Halliana  of  nurserymen),  an 
evergreen  in  the  South,  and  holding  its  leaves  until  midwinter 
or  later  in  the  North.  It  may  be  used  for  covering  a  rock,  a 
pile  of  rubbish,  a  stump  (Fig.  236),  to  fill  a  corner  against  a 
foundation,  or  it  may  be  trained  on  a, porch  or  arbor.  There 
is  a  form  with  yellow-veined  leaves.  Rosa  Wichuraiana  and 
some  of  the  dewberries  are  useful  for  covering  rough  places. 

Many  vines  that  are  commonly  used  for  porches  and  ar- 
bors may  be  employed  also  for  the  borders  of  shrub-planta- 
tions and  for  covering  rough  banks  and  rocks,  quickly  giving  a 
finish  to  the  cruder  parts  of  the  place.  Such  vines,  among 
others,  are  various  kinds  of  clematis,  Virginia  creeper,  actinidia, 
akebia,  trumpet  creeper,  periploca,  bitter-sweet  (Solanum 
Dulcamara),  wax-work  {Celastrus  saandens). 

Of  course,  very  good  immediate  effects  may  be  secured  by 
very  close  planting  (page  222),  but  the  homesteader  must  not 
neglect  to  thin  out  these  plantations  when  the  time  comes. 


XIV.  A  good  evergreen  wall-cover.     Evonymus  radicans. 


THE   GROWING   OF   THE   ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS       217 


236.   Stump  covered  with  Japanese  honeysuckle. 


218  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

The  use  of  "foliage  "  trees  and  shrubs. 

There  is  always  a  temptation  to  use  too  freely  of  the  trees 
and  shrubs  that  are  characterized  by  abnormal  or  striking 
foliage.  The  subject  is  discussed  in  its  artistic  bearings  on 
pages  40  and  41. 

As  a  rule,  the  yellow-leaved,  spotted-leaved,  variegated,  and 
other  abnormal  ^^ foliage"  plants  are  less  hardy  and  less  rehable 
than  the  green-leaved  or  ''natural"  forms.  They  usually  re- 
quire more  care,  if  they  are  kept  in  vigorous  and  seemly  condi- 
tion. Some  marked  exceptions  to  this  are  noted  in  the  lists  of 
trees  and  shrubs. 

There  are  some  plants  of  striking  foliage,  however,  that  are 
perfectly  reliable,  but  they  are  usually  not  of  the  'horticultu- 
ral variety"  class,  their  characteristics  being  normal  to  the  spe- 
cies. Some  of  the  silver  or  white-leaved  poplars,  for  example, 
produce  the  most  striking  contrasts  of  foliage,  particularly  if  set 
near  darker  trees,  and  for  this  reason  they  are  much  desired 
by  many  planters.  Bolle's  poplar  {Populus  Bolleana  of  the  nur- 
series) is  one  of  the  best  of  these  trees.  Its  habit  is  something 
like  that  of  the  Lombardy.  The  upper  surface  of  the  deeply 
lobed  leaves  is  dark  dull  green,  while  the  under  surface  is  almost 
snowy  white.  Such  emphatic  trees  as  this  should  generally 
be  partially  obscured  by  planting  them  amongst  other  trees,  so 
that  they  appear  to  mix  with  the  other  foliage;  or  else  they 
should  be  seen  at  some  distance.  Other  varieties  of  the  com- 
mon white  poplar  or  abele  are  occasionally  useful,  although 
most  of  them  sprout  badly  and  may  become  a  nuisance.  But 
the  planting  of  these  immodest  trees  is  so  likely  to  be  overdone 
that  one  scarcely  dare  recommend  them,  although,  when  skill- 
fully used,  they  may  be  made  to  produce  most  excellent  ef- 
fects. If  any  reader  has  a  particular  fondness  for  trees  of  this 
class  (or  any  others  with  woolly-white  foliage)  and  if  he  has 
only  an  ordinary  city  lot  or  farm-yard  to  ornament,  let  him 


THE   GROWING    OF   THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS       219 

reduce  his  desires  to  a  single  tree,  and  then  if  that  tree  is  planted 
in  the  interior  of  a  group  of  other  trees,  no  harm  can  result. 

Windbreaks  and  screens. 

A  shelter-belt  for  the  home  grounds  is  often  placed  at  the 
extreme  edge  of  the  home  yard,  toward  the  heaviest  or  pre- 
vaihng  wind.  It  may  be  a  dense  plantation  of  evergreens.  If 
so,  the  Norway  spruce  is  one  of  the  best  for  general  purposes 
in  the  northeastern  states.  For  a  lower  belt  the  arbor  vitse  is 
excellent.  Some  of  the  pines,  as  the  Scotch  or  Austrian,  and 
the  native  white  pine,  are  also  to  be  advised,  particularly  if  the 
belt  is  at  some  distance  from  the  residence.  As  a  rule,  the 
coarser  the  tree  the  farther  it  should  be  placed  from  the  house. 

The  common  deciduous  trees  of  the  region  (as  elm,  maple, 
box-elder)  may  be  planted  in  a  row  or  rows  for  windbreaks. 
Good  temporary  shelter  belts  are  secured  by  poplars  and  large 
willows.  On  the  prairies  and  far  north  the  laurel  willow 
{Salix  laurifolia  of  the  trade)  is  excellent.  Where  snow  blows 
very  badly,  two  lines  of  breaks  may  be  planted  three  to  s'x 
rods  apart,  so  that  the  inclosed  lane  may  catch  the  drift;  this 
method  is  employed  in  prairie  regions. 

Persons  may  desire  to  use  the  break  as  a  screen  to  hide  un- 
desirable objects.  If  these  objects  are  o'  a  permanent  charac- 
ter, as  a  barn  or  an  unkempt  property,  evergreen  trees  should 
be  used.  For  temporary  screens,  any  of  the  very  large-growing 
herbaceous  plants  may  be  employed.  Very  excellent  subjects 
are  sunflowers,  the  large-growing  nicotianas,  castor  beans,  large 
varieties  of  Indian  corn,  and  plants  of  like  growth.  Excellent 
screens  are  sometimes  made  with  vines  on  a  trellis. 

Very  efficient  summer  screens  may  be  made  with  ailanthus, 
paulownia,  basswood,  sumac,  and  other  plants  that  tend  to 
throw  up  very  vigorous  shoots  from  the  base.  After  these 
plants  have  been  set  a  year  or  two,  they  are  cut  back  nearly  to 
the  ground  in  winter  or  spring,  and  strong  shoots  are  thrown 


220  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

up  with  great  luxuriance  during  the  summer,  giving  a  dense 
screen  and  presenting  a  semi-tropical  effect.  For  such  purposes, 
the  roots  should  be  planted  only  two  or  three  feet  apart.  If, 
after  a  time,  the  roots  become  so  crowded  that  the  shoots  are 
weak,  some  of  the  plants  may  be  removed.  Top-dressing  the 
area  every  fall  with  manure  will  tend  to  make  the  ground  rich 
enough  to  afford  a  very  heavy  summer  growth.     (See  Fig.  50.) 

The  making  of  hedges. 

Hedges  are  much  less  used  in  this  country  than  in  Europe, 
and  for  several  reasons.  Our  chmate  is  dry,  and  most  hedges 
do  not  thrive  so  well  here  as  there;  labor  is  high-priced,  and 
the  trimming  is  therefore  likely  to  be  neglected;  our  farms  are 
so  large  that  much  fencing  is  required;  timber  and  wire  are 
cheaper  than  live  hedges. 

However,  hedges  are  used  with  good  effect  about  the  home 
grounds.  In  order  to  secure  a  good  ornamental  hedge,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  a  thoroughly  well-prepared  deep  soil,  to 
set  the  plants  close,  and  to  shear  them  at  least  twice  every  year. 
For  evergreen  hedges  the  most  serviceable  plant  in  general  is 
the  arbor  vitse.  The  plants  may  be  set  at  distances  of  1  to  2}/2 
feet  apart.  For  coarser  hedges,  the  Norway  spruce  is  used; 
and  for  still  coarser  ones,  the  Scotch  and  Austrian  pines.  In 
California  the  staple  conifer  hedge  is  made  of  Monterey  cypress. 
For  choice  evergreen  hedges  about  the  grounds,  particularly 
outside  the  northern  states,  some  of  the  retinosporas  are  very 
useful.  One  of  the  most  satisfactory  of  all  coniferous  plants 
for  hedges  is  the  common  hemlock,  which  stands  shearing  well 
and  makes  a  very  soft  and  pleasing  mass.  The  plants  may  be 
set  from  2  to  4  feet  apart. 

Other  plants  that  hold  their  leaves  and  are  good  for  hedges 
are  the  common  box  and  the  privets.  Box  hedges  are  the  best 
for  very  low  borders  about  walks  and  flower-beds.  The  dwarf 
variety  can  be  kept  down  to  a  height  of  6  inches  to  a  foot  for 


THE   GROWING   OF   THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS       221 

any  number  of  years.  The  larger-growing  varieties  make  ex- 
cellent hedges  3,  4,  and  5  feet  high.  The  ordinary  privet  or 
prim  holds  its  leaves  well  into  winter  in  the  North.  The  so- 
called  Californian  privet  holds  its  leaves  rather  longer  and 
stands  better  along  the  seashore.  The  mahonia  makes  a  low, 
loose  hedge  or  edging  in  locations  where  it  will  thrive.  Pyra- 
cantha  is  also  to  be  recommended  where  hardy.  In  the  south- 
ern states,  nothing  is  better  than  Citrus  trifoliata.  This  is  hardy 
even  farther  north  than  Washington  in  very  favored  localities. 
In  the  South,  Prunus  Carolinmna  is  also  used  for  hedges.  Salt- 
bush  hedges  are  frequent  in  California. 

For  hedges  of  deciduous  plants,  the  most  common  species 
are  the  buckthorn,  Japan  quince,  the  European  hawthorn 
and  other  thorns,  tamarix,  osage  orange,  honey  locust,  and 
various  kinds  of  roses.  Osage  orange  has  been  the  most  used 
for  farm  hedges.  For  home  grounds,  Berheris  Tkunhergii 
makes  an  excellent  free  hedge;  also  Spircea  Thunhergii  and 
other  spireas.  The  common  Rosa  rugosa  makes  an  attractive 
free  hedge. 

Hedges  should  be  trimmed  the  j^ear  after  they  are  set, 
although  they  should  not  be  sheared  very  closely  fmtil  they 
reach  the  desired  or  permanent  height.  Thereafter  they  should 
be  cut  into  the  desired  form  in  spring  or  fall,  or  both.  If  the 
plants  are  allowed  to  grow  for  a  year  or  two  without  trimming, 
they  lose  their  lower  leaves  and  become  open  and  straggly. 
Osage  orange  and  some  other  plants  are  plashed;  that  is, 
the  plants  are  set  at  an  angle  rather  than  perpendicularly,  and 
they  are  wired  together  obliquely  in  such  a  way  that  they 
make  an  impenetrable  barrier  just  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 

For  closely  clipped  or  sheared  hedges,  the  best  plants  are 
arbor  vitse,  retinospora,  hemlock,  Norway  spruce,  privet,  buck- 
thorn, box,  osage  orange,  pyracantha,  Citrus  trifoliata.  The 
pyracantha  {Pyracantha  coccined)  is  an  evergreen  shrub  allied 


222  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

to  Crataegus,  of  which  it  is  sometimes  considered  to  be  a  species. 
It  is  also  sometimes  referred  to  cotoneaster.  Although  hardy 
in  protected  places  in  the  North,  it  is  essentially  a  bush  of  the 
middle  and  southern  latitudes,  and  of  California.  It  has  per- 
sistent foliage  and  red  berries.  Var.  Lalandi  has  orange-red 
berries  (Plate  XIX). 

The  borders. 

The  word  "border"  is  used  to  designate  the  heavy  or  con- 
tinuous planting  about  the  boundaries  of  a  place,  or  along  the 
walks  and  drives,  or  against  the  buildings,  in  distinction  from 
planting  on  the  lawn  or  in  the  interior  spaces,  A  border  re- 
ceives different  designations,  depending  on  the  kinds  of  plants 
that  are  grown  therein:  it  may  be  a  shrub-border,  a  flower- 
border,  a  hardy  border  for  native  and  other  jDlants,  a  vine- 
border,  and  the  like. 

There  are  three  rules  for  the  choosing  of  plants  for  a  hardy 
border:  choose  (1)  those  that  you  like  best,  (2)  those  that  are 
adapted  to  the  climate  and  soil,  (3)  those  that  are  in  place  or 
in  keeping  with  that  part  of  the  grounds. 

The  earth  for  the  border  should  be  fertile.  The  whole  ground 
should  be  plowed  or  spaded  and  the  plants  set  irregularly  in  the 
space;  or  the  back  row  may  be  set  in  a  line.  If  the  border  is 
composed  of  shrubs,  and  is  large,  a  horse  cultivator  may  be  run 
in  and  out  between  the  plants  for  the  first  two  or  three  years, 
since  the  shrubs  will  be  set  2  to  4  feet  apart.  Ordinarily, 
however,  the  tilling  is  done  with  hand  tools.  After  the  plants 
are  once  established  and  the  border  is  filled,  it  is  best  to  dig  up 
as  little  as  possible,  for  the  digging  disturbs  the  roots  and  breaks 
the  crowns.  It  is  usually  best  to  pull  out  the  weeds  and 
give  the  border  a  top-dressing  each  fall  of  well-rotted  manure. 
If  the  ground  is  not  very  rich,  an  application  of  ashes  or  some 
commercial  fertilizer  may  be  given  from  time  to  time. 

'The  border  should  be  planted  so  thick  as  to  allow  the  plants 


THE   GROWING   OF   THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS       223 

to  run  together,  thereby  giving  one  continuous  effect.  Most 
shrubs  should  be  set  3  feet  apart.  Things  as  large  as  lilacs  may 
go  4  feet  and  sometimes  even  more.  Common  herbaceous 
perennials,  as  bleeding  heart,  delphiniums,  hollyhocks,  and  the 
like,  should  go  from  12  to  18  inches.  On  the  front  edge  of  the 
border  is  a  very  excellent  place  for  annual  and  tender  flowering 
plants.  Here,  for  example,  one  may  make  a  fringe  of  asters, 
geraniums,  coleus,  or  anything  else  he  may  choose.     (Chap.  II.) 

Into  the  heavy  borders  about  the  boundaries  of  the  place  the 
autumn  leaves  will  drift  and  afford  an  excellent  mulch.  If 
these  borders  are  planted  with  shrubs,  the  leaves  may  be  left 
there  to  decay,  and  not  be  raked  off  in  the  spring. 

The  general  outline  of  the  border  facing  the  lawn  should  be 
more  or  less  wavy  or  irregular,  particularly  if  it  is  on  the 
boundary  of  the  place.  Alongside  a  walk  or  drive  the  margins 
may  follow  the  general  directions  of  the  walk  or  drive. 

In  making  borders  of  perennial  flowers  the  most  satisfactory 
results  are  secured  if  a  large  clump  of  each  kind  or  variety  is 
grown.  The  herbaceous  border  is  one  of  the  most  flexible  parts 
of  grounds,  since  it  has  no  regular  or  formal  design.  Allow 
ample  space  for  each  perennial  root,  —  often  as  much  as  three 
or  four  square  feet,  —  and  then  if  the  space  is  not  filled  the 
first  year  or  two,  scatter  over  the  area  seeds  of  poppies,  sweet 
peas,  asters,  gihas,  alyssum,  or  other  annuals.  Figures  237-239, 
from  Long  (''Popular  Gardening,"  i.,  17,  18),  suggest  methods 
of  making  such  borders.  They  are  on  a  scale  of  ten  feet  to  the 
inch.  The  entire  surface  is  tilled,  and  the  irregular  diagrams 
designate  the  sizes  of  the  clumps.  The  diagrams  containing 
no  names  are  to  be  filled  with  bulbs,  annuals,  and  tender  plants, 
if  desired. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  one  cannot  have  a 
border  unless  he  has  wide  marginal  spaces  about  his  grounds. 
It  is  surprising  how  many  things  one  can  grow  in  an  old  fence. 
Perennials  that  grow  in  fence-rows  in  fields  ought  also  to  grow 


224 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


THE   GROWING    OF   THE   ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS       225 


in  similar  boundaries  on  the  home  grounds.     Some  of 
garden  annuals  will  thrive  alongside  a  fence,  particularly  if 
fence  does  not  shut  off  too  much 
light;   and  many  vines  (both  per- 
ennial   and    annual)    will   cover  it 
effectively.     Among    annuals,    the 
large-seeded,    quick-germinating,     s    A^   ^^If^/V) 
rapid-growing  kinds  will   do  best. 
Sunflower,  sweet  pea,  morning  glory, 
Japanese  hop,  zinnia,  marigold,  am- 
aranths, four  o'clock,  are  some  of 
the  kinds  that  will  hold  their  own. 
If  the  effort  is  made  to  grow  plants 
in  such  places,  it  is  important  to     /^ 
give  them  all   the   advantage  pos-    {Js 
sible  early  in  the  season,  so  that      ^ 
they  will  get  well  ahead  of  the  grass 
and  weeds.     Spade  up   the  ground 
all  you   can.     Add  a  little  quick- 
acting  fertilizer.     It  is  best  to  start 
the  plants  in  pots  or  small  boxes,  so 
that  they  will  be  in  advance  of  the 
weeds  when  they  are  set  out. 

The  flower-beds. 

We  must  remember  to  distinguish 
two  uses  of  flowers,  —  their  part 
in  a  landscape  design  or  picture, 
and  their  part  in  a  bed  or  separate 
garden  for  bloom.  We  now  consider 
the  flower-bed  proper;  and  we  in- 
clude in  the  flower-bed  such  ''foli- 
age" plants  as  coleus,  celosia, 
croton,   and   canna,   although    the 

Q 


the 
the 


226  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

main  object  of  the  flower-bed  is  to  produce  an  abundance 
of  flowers. 

In  making  a  flower-bed,  see  that  the  ground  is  well  drained; 
that  the  subsoil  is  deep;  that  the  land  is  in  a  mellow  and  friable 
condition,  and  that  it  is  fertile.  Each  fall  it  may  have  a  mulch 
of  rotted  manure  or  of  leafmold,  which  may  be  spaded  under 
deeply  in  the  spring;  or  the  land  may  be  spaded  and  left  rough 
in  the  fall,  which  is  a  good  practice  when  the  soil  has  much  clay. 
Make  the  flower-beds  as  broad  as  possible,  so  that  the  roots  of 
tlie  grass  running  in  from  either  side  will  not  meet  beneath  the 
flowers  and  rob  the  beds  of  food  and  moisture.  It  is  well  to 
add  a  little  commerc  al  fertilizer  each  fall  or  spring. 

Although  it  is  well  to  emphasize  making  the  ground  fertile, 
it  must  be  remembered  (as  indicated  on  page  114)  that 
it  can  easily  be  made  too  rich  for  such  plants  as  we  desire 
to  keep  within  certain  stature  and  for  those  from  which  we 
wish  an  abundance  of  bloom  in  a  short  season.  In  over-rich 
ground,  nasturtiums  and  some  other  plants  not  only  '^run  to 
vine,"  but  the  bloom  lacks  brilliancy.  When  it  is  the  leaf 
and  vegetation  that  is  wanted,  there  is  little  danger  of  making 
the  ground  too  rich,  although  it  is  possible  to  make  the  plant 
so  succulent  and  sappy  that  it  becomes  sprawly  or  breaks 
down;    and  other  plants  may  be  crippled  and  crowded  out. 

There  are  various  styles  of  flower-planting.  The  mixed 
border,  planted  with  various  hardy  plants,  and  extending  along 
either  side  of  the  garden- walk,  was  popular  years  ago;  and, 
with  modifications  in  position,  form,  and  extent,  has  been  a 
popular  attachment  to  home  grounds  during  the  past  few  years. 
To  produce  the  best  effects  the  plants  should  be  set  close 
enough  to  cover  the  ground;  and  the  selection  should  be  such 
as  to  afford  a  continuity  of  bloom. 

The  mixed  flower-bed  may  contain  only  tender  summer- 
blooming  plants,  in  which  case  the  bed,  made  up  mostly  of  an- 
nuals, does  not  purport  to  express  the  entire  season. 


THE   GROWING    OF   THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS       227 

In  distinction  from  the  mixed  or  non-homogeneous  flower- 
bed are  the  various  forms  of  ''bedding/'  in  which  plants  are 
massed  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  connected  and  homogeneous 
bold  display  of  form  or  color.  The  bedding  may  be  for  the 
purpose  of  producing  a  strong  effect  of  white,  of  blue,  or  of 
red;  or  of  ribbon-like  lines  and  edgings;  or  of  luxurious 
and  tropical  expression;  or  to  display  boldly  the  features 
of  a  particular  plant,  as  the  tulip,  the  hyacinth,  the  chrysan- 
themum. 

In  ribbon-bedding,  flowering  or  foliage  plants  are  arranged 
in  ribbon-like  lines  of  harmoniously  contrasting  colors,  com- 
monly accompanying  walks  or  drives,  but  also  suitable  for 
marking  limits,  or  for  the  side  borders.  In  such  beds,  as  well 
as  the  others,  the  tallest  plants  will  be  placed  at  the  back,  if 
the  bed  is  to  be  seen  from  one  side  only,  and  the  lowest  at  the 
front.  If  it  is  to  be  seen  from  both  vsicles,  then  the  tallest  will 
stand  in  the  center. 

A  modification  of  the  ribbon-line,  bringing  the  contrasting 
colors  together  into  masses  forming  circles  or  other  patterns,  is 
known  as  ''massing,"  or  "massing  in  color,"  and  sometimes  is 
spoken  of  as  "carpet-bedding." 

Carpet-bedding,  however,  belongs  more  properly  to  a  style 
of  bedding  in  which  plants  of  dense,  low,  spreading  habit  — 
chiefly  foliage  plants,  with  leaves  of  different  forms  and  colors 
—  are  planted  in  patterns  not  unlike  carpets  or  rugs.  It  is 
often  necessary  to  keep  the  plants  sheared  into  limits.  Carpet- 
bedding  is  such  a  specialized  form  of  plant-growing  that  we 
shall  treat  of  it  separately  (page  234). 

Beds  containing  the  large  foliage  plants,  for  producing  tropi- 
cal effects,  are  composed,  in  the  main,  of  subjects  that  are 
allowed  to  develop  natu^all3^  In  the  lower  and  more  orderly 
massing,  the  plants  are  arranged  not  only  in  circles  and  patterns 
according  to  habit  and  height,  but  the  selection  is  such  that 
some  or  all  may  be  kept  within  proper  limits  by  pinching  or 


228  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

trimming.  Circles  or  masses  composed  of  flowering  plants 
usually  cannot  be  cut  back  at  the  top,  so  that  the  habit  of  the 
plants  must  be  known  before  planting;  and  the  plants  must  be 
placed  in  parts  of  the  bed  where  trimming  will  not  be  necessary. 
They  may  be  clipped  at  the  sides,  however,  in  case  the  branches 
or  leaves  of  one  mass  or  line  in  the  pattern  grow  beyond  their 
proper  bounds. 

The  numbers  of  good  annuals  and  perennials  that  may  be 
used  in  flower-beds  are  now  very  large,  and  one  may  have  a  wide 
choice.  Various  lists  from  which  one  may  choose  are  given 
at  the  end  of  this  chapter;  but  special  comment  may  be  made 
on  those  most  suitable  for  bedding,  and  in  its  modification  in 
ribbon-work  and  sub-tropical  massing. 

Bedding  effects. 

Bedding  is  ordinarily  a  temporary  species  of  planting;  that 
is,  the  bed  is  filled  anew  each  year.  However,  the  term  may 
be  used  to  designate  a  permanent  plantation  in  which  the 
plants  are  heavily  massed  so  as  to  give  one  continuous  or  em- 
phatic display  of  form  or  color.  Some  of  the  best  permanent 
bedding  masses  are  made  of  the  various  hardy  ornamental 
grasses,  as  eulahas,  arundo,  and  the  like.  The  color  effects  in 
bedding  may  be  secured  with  flowers  or  with  foliage. 

Summer  bedding  is  often  made  by  perennial  plants  that  are 
carried  over  from  the  preceding  year,  or  better,  that  are  propa- 
gated for  that  particular  purpose  in  February  and  March. 
Such  plants  as  geranium,  coleus,  alyssum,  scarlet  salvia,  agera- 
tum,  and  heliotrope  may  be  used  for  these  beds.  It  is  a  com- 
mon practice  to  use  geranium  plants  which  are  in  bloom  during 
the  winter  for  bedding  out  during  the  summer,  but  such  plants 
are  tall  and  ungainly  in  form  and  have  expended  the  greater 
part  of  their  energies.  It  is  better  to  propagate  new  plants  by 
taking  cuttings  or  slips  late  in  the  winter  and  setting  out  young 
fresh  vigorous  subjects.     (Page  30.) 


THE   GROWING   OF   THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS       229 

Some  bedding  is  very  temporary  in  its  effect.  Especially 
is  this  true  of  spring  bedding,  in  which  the  subjects  are  tulips, 
hyacinths,  crocuses,  or  other  early-flowering  bulbous  plants. 
In  this  case,  the  ground  is  usually  occupied  later  in  the  season 
by  other  plants.  These  later  plants  are  commonly  annuals,  the 
seeds  of  which  are  sown  amongst  the  bulbs  as  soon  as  the  season 
is  far  enough  advanced;  or  the  annuals  may  be  started  in  boxes 
and  the  plants  transplanted  amongst  the  bulbs  as  soon  as  the 
weather  is  fit. 

Many  of  the  low-growing  and  compact  continuous-flowering 
annuals  are  excellent  for  summer  bedding  effects.  There  is  a 
list  of  some  useful  material  for  this  purpose  on  page  249. 

Plants  for  subtropical  effects  (Plates  IV  and  V). 

The  number  of  plants  suitable  to  produce  a  semitropical 
mass  or  for  the  center  or  back  of  a  group,  which  may  be  readily 
grown  from  seed,  is  limited.  Some  of  the  best  kinds  are  in- 
cluded below. 

It  ^dll  often  be  worth  while  to  supplement  these  with  others, 
to  be  had  at  the  florists,  such  as  caladiums,  screw  pines,  Ficus 
elastica,  araucarias,  Musa  Ensete,  palms,  dracenas,  crotons,  and 
others.  Dahhas  and  tuberous  begonias  are  also  useful.  About 
a  pond  the  papyrus  and  lotus  may  be  used. 

Practically  all  the  plants  used  for  this  style  of  gardening  are 
liable  to  injury  from  winds,  and  therefore  the  beds  should  be 
placed  in  a  protected  situation.  The  palms  and  some  other 
greenhouse  stuff  do  better  if  partially  shaded. 

In  the  use  of  such  plants,  there  are  opportunities  for  the 
exercise  of  the  nicest  taste.  A  gross  feeder,  as  the  ricinus,  in 
the  midst  o  a  bed  of  delicate  annuals,  is  quite  out  of  place;  and 
a  stately,  royal-looking  plant  among  humbler  kinds  often  makes 
the  latter  look  common,  when  if  headed  with  a  chief  of  their 
own  rank  all  would  appear  to  the  best  advantage. 

Some  of  the  plants  much  used  for  subtropical  bedding,  and 


230  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

often   started  for  that  purpose  in  a  greenhouse  or  coldframe 
are :  — 

Acalypha. 

Amarantus. 

Aralia  Sieboldii  (properly  Fatsia  Japonica). 

Bamboos. 

Caladium  and  colocasia. 

Canna. 

Coxcomb,  particularly  the  new  "foliage"  kinds. 

Grasses,  as  eulalias,  pampas-grass,  pennisetums. 

Gunnera. 

Maize,  the  striped  form. 

Ricinus  or  castor  bean. 

Scarlet  sage. 

Wigandia. 

Aquatic  and  hog  plants. 

Some  of  the  most  interesting  and  ornamental  of  all  plants 
grow  in  water  and  in  wet  places.  It  is  possible  to  make  an 
aquatic  flower-garden,  and  also  to  use  water  and  bog  plants 
as  a  part  of  the  landscape  work. 

The  essential  consideration  in  the  growing  of  aquatics  is  the 
making  of  the  pond.  It  is  possible  to  grow  water-lilies  in  tubs 
and  half  barrels;  but  this  does  not  provide  sufficient  room, 
and  the  plant-food  is  likely  soon  to  be  exhausted  and  the  plants 
to  fail.  The  small  quantity  of  water  is  likely  also  to  become 
foul. 

The  best  ponds  are  those  made  by  good  mason  work,  for  the 
water  does  not  become  muddy  by  working  among  the  plants. 
In  cement  ponds  it  is  best  to  plant  the  roots  of  water-lilies  in 
shallow  boxes  of  earth  (1  foot  deep  and  3  or  4  feet  square), 
or  to  hold  the  earth  in  mason-work  compartments. 

Usually  the  ponds  or  tanks  are  not  cement  lined.  In  some 
soils  a  simple  excavation  will  hold  water,  but  it   is   usually 


THE   GROWING    OF   THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS       231 

necessary  to  give  the  tank  some  kind  of  lining.  Clay  is  often 
used.  The  bottom  and  sides  of  the  tank  are  pounded  firm, 
and  then  covered  with  3  to  6  in.  of  clay,  which  has  been 
kneaded  in  the  hands,  or  pounded  and  worked  in  a  box. 
Handfuls  or  shovelfuls  of  the  material  are  thro^vn  forcibly  upon 
the  earth,  the  operator  being  careful  not  to  walk  upon  the  work. 
The  clay  is  smoothed  by  means  of  a  spade  or  maul,  and  it  is  then 
sanded. 

The  water  for  the  lily  pond  may  be  derived  from  a  brook, 
spring,  well,  or  a  city  water  supply.  The  plants  will  thrive  in 
any  water  that  is  used  for  domestic  purposes.  It  is  important 
that  the  water  does  not  become  stagnant  and  a  breeding  place 
for  mosquitoes.  There  should  be  an  outlet  in  the  nature  of  a 
stand-pipe,  that  will  control  the  depth  of  water.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary that  the  water  run  through  the  pond  or  tank  rapidly,  but 
only  that  a  slow  change  take  place.  Sometimes  the  water  is 
allowed  to  enter  through  a  fountain-vase,  in  which  water  plants 
(such  as  parrot's  feather)  may  be  gro^vn  (Plate  X). 

In  all  ponds,  a  foot  or  15  in.  is  sufficient  depth  of  water 
to  stand  above  the  crowns  of  the  plants;  and  the  greatest  depth 
of  water  should  not  be  more  than  3  ft.  for  all  kinds  of  water- 
hlies.  Half  this  depth  is  often  sufficient.  The  soil  should  be 
1  to  2  ft.  deep,  and  very  rich.  Old  cow  manure  may  be  mixed 
with  rich  loam.  For  the  nympheas  or  water-hlies,  9  to  12  in. 
of  soil  is  sufficient.  Most  of  the  foreign  water-lilies  are  not 
hardy,  but  some  of  them  may  be  grown  with  ease  if  the  pond  is 
covered  in  winter. 

Roots  of  ha:dy  water-lilies  may  be  planted  as  soon  as  the 
pond  is  clear  cf  frost,  but  the  tender  kinds  (which  are  also  to 
be  taken  up  in  the  fall)  should  not  be  planted  till  it  is  time  to 
plant  out  geraniums.  Sink  the  roots  into  the  mud  so  that  they 
are  just  buried,  and  weight  them  down  with  a  stone  or  clod. 
The  nelumbium,  or  so-called  Egyptian  lotus,  should  not  be 
transplanted  till  growth  begins  to  show  in  the  roots  in  the 


232  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

spring.  The  roots  are  cleaned  of  decayed  parts  and  covered 
with  about  3  in.  of  soil.  A  foot  or  so  of  water  is  sufficient  for 
lotus  ponds.  The  roots  of  Egyptian  lotus  must  not  freeze. 
The  roots  of  all  water-lily-like  plants  should  be  frequently 
divided  and  renewed. 

With  hardy  aquatics,  the  water  and  roots  are  allowed  to 
remain  naturally  over  winter.  In  very  cold  climates,  the  pond 
is  protected  by  throwing  boards  over  it  and  covering  with  hay, 
straw,  or  evergreen  boughs.  It  is  well  to  supply  an  additional 
depth  of  water  as  a  further  protection. 

As  a  landscape  feature,  the  pond  should  have  a  background, 
or  setting,  and  its  edges  should  be  relieved,  at  least  on  sides  and 
back,  by  plantings  of  bog  plants.  In  permanent  ponds  of  large 
size,  plantings  of  willows,  osiers,  and  other  shrubbery  may  set 
off  the  area  to  advantage.  Many  of  the  wild  marsh  and  pond 
plants  are  excellent  for  marginal  plantings,  as  sedges,  cat-tail, 
sweet-flag  (there  is  a  striped-leaved  form),  and  some  of  the 
marsh  grasses.  Japanese  iris  makes  an  excellent  effect  in  such 
places.  For  summer  planting  in  or  near  ponds,  caladium^ 
umbrella-plant,  and  papyrus  are  good. 

If  there  is  a  stream,  ^'branch,"  or  ''run"  through  the  place,  it 
may  often  be  made  one  of  the  most  attractive  parts  of  the 
premises  by  colonizing  bog  plants  along  it. 

Rockeries,  and  alpine  plants. 

A  rockery  is  a  part  of  the  place  in  which  plants  are  grown  in 
pockets  between  rocks.  It  is  a  flower-garden  conception  rather 
than  a  landscape  feature,  and  therefore  should  be  at  one  side 
or  in  the  rear  of  the  premises.  Primarily,  the  object  of  using  the 
rocks  is  to  provide  better  conditions  in  which  certain  plants 
may  grow;  sometimes  the  rocks  are  employed  to  hold  a  springy 
or  sloughing  bank  and  the  plants  are  used  to  cover  the  rocks; 
now  and  then  a  person  wants  a  rock  or  a  pile  of  stones  in  his 
yard,  as  another  person  would  want  a  piece  of  statuary  or  a 


THE   GROWING    OF   THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS       233 

sheared  evergreen.  Sometimes  the  rocks  are  natural  to  the 
place  and  cannot  well  be  removed;  in  this  case  the  planning  and 
planting  should  be  such  as  to  make  them  part  of  the  picture. 

The  real  rock-garden,  however,  is  a  place  in  which  to  grow 
plants.  The  rocks  are  secondary.  The  rocks  should  not  ap- 
pear to  be  placed  for  display.  If  one  is  making  a  collection  of 
rocks,  he  is  pursuing  geology  rather  than  gardening. 

Yet  many  of  the  so-called  rock-gardens  are  mere  heaps  of 
stones,  placed  where  it  seems  to  be  convenient  to  pile  stones 
rather  than  where  the  stones  may  improve  conditions  for  the 
growing  of  plants. 

The  plants  that  will  naturally  grow  in  rock  pockets  are 
those  requiring  a  continuous  supplj^  of  root  moisture  and  a  cool 
atmosphere.  To  place  a  rockery  on  a  sand  bank  in  the  burning 
sun  is  therefore  entirely  out  of  character. 

Rock-garden  plants  are  those  of  cool  woods,  of  bogs,  and  par- 
ticularly of  high  mountains  and  alpine  regions.  It  is  generally 
understood  that  a  rock-garden  is  an  alpine-garden,  although 
this  is  not  necessarily  so. 

In  this  country  alpine-gardening  is  little  known,  largely  be- 
cause of  our  hot  dry  summers  and  falls.  But  if  one  has  a  rather 
cool  exposure  and  an  unfailing  water  supply,  he  may  succeed 
fairly  well  with  many  of  the  alpines,  or  at  least  with  the  semi- 
alpines.  Most  of  the  alpines  are  low  and  often  tufted  plants, 
and  bloom  in  a  spring  temperature.  In  our  long  hot  seasons, 
the  alpine-garden  may  be  expected  to  be  dormant  during  much 
of  the  summer,  unless  other  rock-loving  plants  are  colonized 
in  it.  Alpine  plants  are  of  many  kinds.  They  are  specially  to 
be  found  in  the  genera  arenaria,  silene,  diapensia,  primula, 
saxifraga,  arabis,  aubrietia,  veronica,  campanula,  gentiana. 
They  comprise  a  good  number  of  ferns  and  many  little  heaths. 

A  good  rock-garden  of  any  kind  does  not  have  the  stones  piled 
merely  on  the  surface;  they  are  sunken  well  into  the  ground 
and  are  so  placed  that  there  are  deep  chambers  or  channels  that 


234  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

hold  moisture  and  into  which  roots  may  penetrate.  The  pock- 
ets are  filled  with  good  fibrous  moisture-holding  earth,  and 
often  a  little  sphagnum  or  other  moss  is  added.  It  must  then 
be  arranged  so  that  the  pockets  never  dry  out. 

Rock-gardens  are  usually  failures,  because  they  violate  these 
very  simple  elementary  principles;  but  even  when  the  soil  con- 
ditions and  moisture  conditions  are  good,  the  habits  of  the 
rock  plants  must  be  learned,  and  this  requires  thoughtful  ex- 
perience.    Rock-gardens  cannot  be  generally  recommended. 

1.   Plants  for  Carpet-beds 
(By  Ernest  Walker) 

The  beauty  of  the  carpet-bed  lies  largely  in  its  unity,  sharp 
contrast  and  harmony  of  color,  elegance  —  often  simplicity  — ■ 
of  design,  nicety  of  execution,  and  the  continued  distinctness  of 
outline  due  to  scrupulous  care.  A  generous  allowance  of  green- 
sward on  all  sides  contributes  greatly  to  the  general  effect, — 
in  fact  it  is  indispensable. 

Whatever  place  is  chosen  for  the  bed,  it  should  be  in  a  sunny 
exposure.  This,  nor  any  kind  of  bed,  should  not  be  planted 
near  large  trees,  as  their  greedy  roots  will  rob  the  soil  not  only 
of  its  food,  but  of  moisture.  The  shade  also  will  be  a  menace. 
As  the  plants  stand  so  thick,  the  soil  should  be  well  enriched,  and 
spaded  at  least  a  foot  deep.  In  planting,  a  space  of  at  least  six 
inches  must  be  left  between  the  outer  row  of  plants  and  the 
edge  of  the  grass.  The  very  style  of  the  bed  requires  that  lines 
be  straight,  the  curves  uniform,  and  that  they  be  kept  so  by 
the  frequent  and  careful  use  of  the  shears.  During  dry  periods 
watering  will  be  necessary.  The  beds,  however,  should  not  be 
watered  in  the  hot  sunshine.  Foliage  plants  are  most  in  use, 
and  are  the  ones  which  will  prove  the  most  satisfactory  in  the 
hands  of  the  inexperienced,  as  they  submit  to  severe  clipping 
and  are  thus  more  easily  managed. 


THE   GROWING    OF    THE    ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS       235 

The  following  list  will  be  helpful  to  the  beginner.  It  embraces 
a  number  of  the  plants  in  common  use  for  carpet-bedding, 
although  not  all  of  them.  The  usual  heights  are  given  in  inches. 
This,  of  course,  in  different  soils  and  under  different  treatment  is 
more  or  less  a  variable  quantity.  The  figures  in  parentheses 
suggest  in  inches  suitable  distances  for  planting  in  the  row  when 
immediate  effects  are  expected.  A  verbena  in  rich  soil  will  in 
time  cover  a  circle  three  feet  or  more  in  diameter;  other  plants 
mentioned  spread  considerably;  but  when  used  in  the  carpet- 
bed,  they  must  be  planted  close.  One  cannot  wait  for  them  to 
grow.  The  aim  is  to  cover  the  ground  at  once.  Although 
planted  thick  in  the  row,  it  will  be  desirable  to  leave  more  room 
between  the  rows  in  case  of  spreading  plants  like  the  verbena. 
Most  of  them,  however,  need  httle  if  any  more  space  between 
the  rows  than  is  indicated  by  the  figures  given.  In  the  list 
those  plants  that  bear  free  clipping  are  marked  with  an 
asterisk  (*) : 

Lists  for  carpet-beds. 

The  figure  immediatehj  following  the  name  of  plant  indicates  its  height, 
the  figures  in  parentheses  the  distance  for  planting,  in  inches. 

1.    Low-GROWiNG  Plants 

A.   Foliage  Plants. 

Crimson.  —  ^Alternanthera  amoena  spectabilis,  6  (4-6). 

Alternanthera  paronychioides  major,  5  (3-6). 
Alternanthera  versicolor,  5  (3-6). 
Yellow.  —Alternanthera  aurea  nana,  6  (4-6). 
Gray,  or  whitish.  —  Echeverisi  secunda,  glauca,  U  (3-4). 
Echeveria  metallica,  9  (6-8). 
Cineraria  maritima,  15  (9-12). 
Sempervivum  Calif ornicum,  1|  (3-4). 
Thymus  argenteus,  6  (4-6). 
Bronze  brown.  —  Oxalis  tropaeoloides,  3  (3-4). 


236  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

Variegated  (white  and  green) .  — 

Geranium  Mme.  Salleroi,  6  (6-8). 
*S\veet  alyssum,  variegated,  6  (6-9). 
B.   Flowering  Plants. 

Scarlet.  —  Phlox  Drummondii,  Dwarf,  6  (4-6). 

Cuphea  platy centra,  Cigar  Plant,  6  (4-6). 
White.  —  Sweet  alyssum,  Little  Gem,  4  (4-6). 
Sweet  alyssum,  common,  6  (6-8). 
Phlox  Drummondii,  Dwarf,  6  (4-6). 
Blue.  —  Lobelia,  Crystal  Palace,  6  (4-6). 
Ageratum,  Dwarf  Blue,  6  (6-8). 

2.     Plants  of  Taller  Growth 

A.  Foliage  Plants. 

Crimson.  —  *Coleus  Verschaffeltii,  24  (9-12). 
*Achyranthes  Lindeni,  18  (8-12). 
*Achyranthes  Gilsoni,  12  (8-12). 
*Achyranthes  Verschaffeltii,  12  (8-12). 
*Acalypha  tricolor,  12-18  (12). 
Yellow.  —  *Coleus,  Golden  Bedder,  24  (9-12). 

*Achyranthes,  aurea  reticulata,  12  (8-12). 
•   Golden    feverfew    (Pyrethrum    parthenifolium    aU' 
reum),  (6-8). 
Bronze  geranium,  12  (9). 
Silvery  white.  —  Dusty  miller  (Centaurea  gymnocarpa),  12  (8-12) 
*Santolina  Chamsecyparissus  incana,  6-12  (6-8). 
Geranium,  Mountain  of  Snow,  12  (6-9). 
Variegated  (white  and  green) .  — 

*Stevia  serrata  var.,  12-18  (8-12). 
Phalaris  arundinacea  var.  (grass),  24  (4-8). 
Cyperus  alternifolius  var.,  24-30  (8-12). 
Bronze.  —  *Acalypha  marginata,  24  (12). 

B.  Flowering  Plants. 

Scarlet.  —  Salvia  splendens,  36  (12-18). 
Geraniums,  24  (12). 


THE    GROWING    OF   THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS       23? 

Cuphea  tricolor  (C.  Llavae),  18  (8-12). 
Dwarf  nasturtium  (Tropaeolum),  12-18  (12-18). 
Begonia,  Vernon,  12  (6-8). 
Verbenas,  12  (6-12). 
Phlox  Drummondii,  Dwarf,  6  (4-6). 
White.  —  Salvia  splendens.  White-flowered,  36  (12-18). 
Geraniums,  18-24  (12). 
Lantana,  Innocence,  18-24  (8-12). 
Lantana,  Queen  Victoria,  24  (8-12). 
Verbena,  Snow  Queen,  12  (6-12). 
Ageratum,  White,  9  (6-9). 
Phlox  Drummondii,  Dwarf,  6  (4-6). 
Pink.  —  Petunia,  Countess  of  Ellesmere,  18  (8-12). 
Lantana,  24  (8-12). 
Verbena,  Beauty  of  Oxford,  6  (8-12). 
Phlox  Drummondii,  Dwarf,  6  (4-6). 
Yellow.  —  Dwarf  nasturtium,  12  (12-18). 

Anthemis  coronaria  fl.  pL,  12  (6-8). 
Blue.  —  Ageratum  Mexicanum,  12  (6-8). 
Verbenas,  6  (6-12). 
Heliotrope,  Queen  of  Violets,  18  (12-18). 

In  Fig.  240  are  shown  a  few  designs  suitable  for  carpet-beds. 
They  are  intended  merely  to  be  suggestive,  not  to  be  copied  pre- 
cisely. The  simple  forms  and  component  parts  of  the  more 
elaborate  beds  may  be  arranged  into  other  designs.  Likewise 
the  arrangement  of  plants,  which  will  be  mentioned  as  suitable 
for  making  a  given  pattern,  is  only  one  of  many  possible  com- 
binations. The  idea  is  merely  to  bring  out  the  design  dis- 
tinctly. To  accomplish  this  it  is  only  necessary  to  use  plants  of 
contrasting  color  or  growth.  To  illustrate  how  varied  are  the 
arrangements  that  may  be  used,  and  how  easily  different  effects 
are  produced  with  a  single  design,  several  different  combina- 
tions of  color  for  the  bed  No.  1  will  be  mentioned: 

No.  1.  —  Arrangement    A :     Outside,    Alternanthera    amoena    spec- 
tabilis;     inside,    Stevia    serrata    variegata.     B:     lobelia,    Crystal 


238 


MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 


240.   Designs  for  carpet-beds. 

Palace;  Mme.  Salleroi  geranium.  C:  lobelia,  Crystal  Palace; 
scarlet  dwarf  phlox.  D :  sweet  alyssum ;  petunia,  Countess  of 
Ellesmere.  E :  coleus,  Golden  Bedder ;  Coleus  Vers  chaff  eltii.  F : 
Achyranthes  Lindeni;  yellow  dwarf  nasturtium. 
No.  2.  —  Outside,  red  alternanthera ;  middle,  dusty  miller ;  center, 
pink  geranium. 


THE   GROWING    OF   THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS       239 

No.  3.  —  Outside,  Alternanthera  aurea  nana ;   middle,  Alternanthera 

amoena  spectabilis ;   center,  Anthemis  coronaria. 
No.  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  12  may  each  be  filled  with  a  single  color,  or  given  a 

border  of  suitable  plants  if  the  planter  so  chooses. 
No.  9.  —  Ground,    Alternanthera    aurea    nana ;     center,    Acalypha 

tricolor ;  black  dots,  scarlet  geranium. 
No.  10.  —  Ground   of   Centaurea   gymnocarpa;    circle,   Achyranthes 

Lindeni ;  cross.  Golden  coleus. 
No.  11.  — Border,  Oxalis  tropaeoloides ;   center,  blue  heliotrope,  blue 
ageratum,  or  Acalypha  marginata ;  cross  about  the  center,  Thymus 
argenteus, or  centaurea ;  scallop  outside  the  cross,blue  lobelia ;  corners, 
inside  border,  santolina. 

Designs  13  and  14  are,  in  character,  somewhat  in  the  style  of  a 
parterre;  but  instead  of  the  intervening  spaces  in  the  bed  being 
ordinary  walks  they  are  of  grass.  Such  beds  are  of  a  useful  type,  be- 
cause they  may  be  made  large  and  yet  be  executed  with  a  compara- 
tively small  number  of  plants.  They  are  especially  suitable  for  the 
center  of  an  open  plot  of  lawn  with  definite  formal  boundaries  on  all 
sides,  such  as  walks  or  drives.  Whether  they  are  to  be  composed  of 
tall-growing  or  of  low-growing  plants  will  depend  upon  the  distance 
they  are  to  be  from  the  observer.  For  a  moderate-sized  plot  the 
following  plants  might  be  used :  — 

No.  13.  —  Border,  red  alternanthera ;  second  row,  dwarf  orange  or 
yellow  nasturtium;  third  row,  Achyranthes  Gilsoni,  or  Acalypha 
tricolor;  central  square,  scarlet  geraniums,  with  a  border  of  Cen- 
taurea gymnocarpa;  intervening  spaces,  grass.  Instead  of  the 
square  of  geraniums,  a  vase  might  be  substituted,  or  a  clump  of 
Salvia  splendens. 
No.  14.  —  Composite  beds  like  this  and  the  former  are  always  sug- 
gestive. They  contain  various  features  which  may  readily  be  re- 
combined  into  other  patterns.  Sometimes  it  may  be  convenient 
to  use  only  portions  of  the  design.  The  reader  should  feel  that  no 
arrangement  is  arbitrary,  but  merely  a  suggestion  that  he  may 
use  with  the  utmost  freedom,  only  keeping  harmony  in  view.  For 
No.  14,  the  following  may  be  an  acceptable  planting  arrangement: 
Border,  Mme.  Salleroi  geranium;  small  dots,  dwarf  scarlet  trope- 
olum ;   diamonds,  blue  lobelia ;   crescents,  Stevia  serrata  variegata ; 


240 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


inner  border,  crim- 
son achyranthes  or 
coleus;  loops,  Cen- 
taurea  g5rmnocarpa ; 
wedge-shaped  por- 
tions, scarlet  gera- 
nium. 
No.  15.  —  Suitable  for 
a  corner.  Border, 
red  alternanthera ; 
second  row,  Alter- 
nanthera aurea 
nana ;  third  row, 
red  alternanthera ; 
center,  Echeveria 
Calif  ornica. 

JNO.     io.         -tSorder,    241.   Carpet-bed  for  a  bay  or  recession  in  the  border 

crimson     alternan-  planting. 

thera    (another  border   of  yellow   alternanthera  might  be  placed 

inside  of  this)  ; 
ground,  Echeveria 
secunda  glauca; 
inner  border,  Oxalis 
tropseoloides ;  cen- 
ter, Alternanthera 
aurea  nana.  Or, 
inner  border,  Eche- 
veria Californica ; 
center,  crimson  al- 
ternanthera. 
No.  17.  —  Another 
bed  intended  to  fill 
an  angle.  Its 
curved  side  will 
also  fit  it  for  use 
with  a  circular  de- 
242.   Another  circular  carpet-bed.  sign.    Border,  dwarf 


THE   GROWING    OF   THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS        241 

blue  ageratum;  circle,  blue  lobelia;  ground  (3  parts),  crimson  alter- 
nanthera. 
Other  carpet  or  mosaic  beds  (after  Long),  with  the  plants  indicated, 
are  shown  in  Figs.  241,  242. 

2.   The  Annual  Plants 

The  annual  flowers  of  the  seedsmen  are  those  that  give  their 
best  bloom  in  the  very  year  in  which  the  seeds  are  sown.  True 
annuals  are  those  plants  that  complete  their  entire  life-cycle  in 
one  season.  Some  of  the  so-called  annual  flowers  will  continue 
to  bloom  the  second  and  third  years,  but  the  bloom  is  so  poor 
and  sparse  after  the  first  season  that  it  does  not  pay  to  keep  them. 
Some  perennials  may  be  treated  as  annuals  by  starting  the 
seeds  early;  Chinese  pink,  pansy  and  snapdragon  are  examples. 

The  regular  biennials  may  be  treated  practically  as  annuals ; 
that  is,  seeds  may  be  sown  every  year,  and  after  the  first  year, 
therefore,  a  seasonal  succession  of  bloom  may  be  had.  Of  such 
are  adlumia,  Canterbury  bell,  lunaria,  ipomopsis,  Qi]nothera 
Lamarckiana;  and  foxglove,  valerian,  and  some  other  perennials 
w^ould  better  be  treated  as  biennials. 

Most  annuals  will  bloom  in  central  New  York  if  the  seeds  are 
sown  in  the  open  ground  when  the  weather  becomes  thoroughly 
settled.  But  there  are  some  kinds,  as  the  late  cosmos  and  moon- 
flowers,  for  which  the  northern  season  is  commonly  too  short 
to  give  good  bloom  unless  they  are  started  very  early  indoors. 

If  flowers  of  any  annual  are  wanted  extra  early,  the  seeds 
should  be  started  under  cover.  A  greenhouse  is  not  necessary 
for  this  purpose,  although  best  results  are  to  be  expected 
with  such  a  building.  The  seed  may  be  sown  in  boxes,  and 
these  boxes  then  placed  in  a  sheltered  position  on  the  warm  side 
of  a  building.  At  night  they  may  be  covered  with  boards  or 
matting.  In  very  cold  ''spells"  the  boxes  should  be  brought 
inside.  In  this  simple  way  seeds  may  often  be  started  one  to 
three  weeks  ahead  of  the  time  when  they  can  be  sown  in  the 


242  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

open  garden.  Moreover,  the  plants  are  likely  to  receive  better 
care  in  these  boxes,  and  therefore  to  grow  more  rapidly.  Of 
course,  if  still  earlier  results  are  desired,  the  seed  should  be  sown 
in  the  kitchen,  hotbed,  coldframe,  or  in  a  greenhouse.  In 
starting  plants  ahead  of  the  season,  be  careful  not  to  use  too 
deep  boxes.  The  gardener's  ''flat"  may  be  taken  as  a  sugges- 
tion. Three  inches  of  earth  is  sufficient,  and  in  some  cases  (as 
when  the  plants  are  started  late)  half  this  depth  is  enough. 

The  difficulty  with  early  sown  seedhngs  is  ''dra^ving  up,"  and 
weakness  from  crowding  and  want  of  light.  This  is  most  Hable 
to  occur  with  window-grown  plants.  Vigorous  June-sown  plants 
are  better  than  such  weaklings.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  very  early  bloom  usually  means  the  shortening  of  the 
season  at  the  other  end;  this  maybe  remedied  to  some  extent 
by  making  sowings  at  different  times. 

The  "hardy"  annuals  are  such  as  develop  readily  without 
the  aid  of  artificial  heat.  They  are  commonly  sown  in  May  or 
earlier,  directly  in  the  open  ground  where  they  are  to  grow. 
Florists  often  sow  certain  kinds  in  the  fall,  and  winter  the 
young  plants  in  coldframes.  They  may  also  be  wintered  under 
a  covering  of  leaves  or  evergreen  boughs.  Some  of  the  hardy 
annuals  (as  sweet  pea)  withstand  considerable  frost.  The 
''half-hardy"  and  "tender"  annuals  are  alike  in  that  they 
require  rnore  warmth  for  their  germination  and  growth.  The 
tender  kinds  are  very  quickly  sensitive  to  frost.  Both  these, 
like  the  hardy  kinds,  may  be  sown  in  the  open  ground,  but  not 
until  the  weather  has  become  settled  and  warm,  which  for  the 
tender  kinds  will  not  commonly  be  before  the  first  of  June;  but 
the  tender  kinds,  at  least,  are  preferably  started  in  the  house  and 
transplanted  to  their  outdoor  beds.  Of  course,  these  terms  are 
wholly  relative.  What  may  be  a  tender  annual  in  Massachu- 
setts may  be  a  hardy  annual  or  even  a  perennial  in  Louisiana. 

These  terms  as  ordinarily  used  in  this  country  refer  to  the 
northern  states,  or  not  farther  south  than  middle  Atlantic  states. 


THE   GROWING    OF    THE   ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS       24o 

Some  familiar  examples  of  hardy  annuals  are  sweet  alyssum, 
ageratum,  calendula,  calliopsis,  candytuft,  Centaurea  Cyanus, 
clarkia,  larkspur,  gilia,  California  poppy,  morning-glory,  mari- 
gold, mignonette,  nemophila,  pansy,  phlox,  pinks,  poppies,  por- 
tulaca,  zinnia,  sweet  pea,  scabiosa. 

Examples  of  half-hardy  annuals  are:  China  aster,  alonsoa, 
balsam,  petunia,  ricinus,  stocks,  balloon-vine,  martynia, 
salpiglossis,  thunbergia,  nasturtium,  verbena. 

Examples  of  tender  annuals :  Amarantus,  celosia  or  coxcomb, 
cosmos,  cotton.  Lobelia  Erinus,  cobea,  gourds,  ice-plant,  sen- 
sitive-plant, solanums,  torenia,  and  such  things  as  dahlias, 
caladiums,  and  acalypha  used  for  bedding  and  subtropical 
effects. 

Some  annuals  do  not  bear  transplanting  well;  as  poppies, 
bartonia,  Venus'  looking-glass,  the  dwarf  convolvulus,  lupinus, 
and  malope.  It  is  best,  therefore,  to  sow  them  where  they 
are  to  grow. 

Some  kinds  (as  poppies)  do  not  bloom  all  summer,  more 
especially  not  if  allowed  to  produce  seed.  Of  such  kinds  a 
second  or  third  sowing  at  intervals  will  provide  a  succession. 
Preventing  the  formation  of  seeds  prolongs  their  life  and  flower- 
ing period. 

A  few  of  the  annuals  thrive  in  partial  shade  or  where  they 
receive  sunshine  for  half  the  day;  but  most  of  them  prefer  a 
sunny  situation. 

Any  good  garden  soil  is  suitable  for  annuals.  If  not  natu- 
rally fertile  and  friable,  it  should  be  made  so  by  the  application 
of  well-rotted  stable-manure  or  humus.  The  spading  should  be 
at  least  one  foot  deep.  The  upper  six  inches  is  then  to  be  given 
a  second  turning  to  pulverize  and  mix  it.  After  making  the 
surface  fine  and  smooth  the  soil  should  be  pressed  down  with  a 
board.  The  seed  may  now  be  sprinkled  on  the  soil  in  lines  or 
concentric  circles,  according  to  the  method  desired.  After  cov- 
ering the  seed,  the  soil  should  be  again  pressed  down  with  a 


244  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

board.  This  promoies  capillarity,  by  which  the  surface  of  the 
soil  is  better  supplied  with  moisture  from  below.  Always  mark 
with  a  label  the  kind  and  position  of  all  seed  sown. 

If  the  flowers  are  to  be  grown  about  the  edges  of  the  lawn, 
make  sure  that  the  grass  roots  do  not  run  underneath  them  and 
rob  them  of  food  and  moisture.  It  is  well  to  run  a  sharp  spade 
deep  into  the  ground  about  the  edges  of  the  bed  every  two  or 
three  weeks  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  off  any  grass  roots  that 
may  have  run  into  the  bed.  If  beds  are  made  in  the  turf,  see 
that  they  are  3  ft.  or  more  wide,  so  that  the  grass  roots  will  not 
undermine  them.  Against  the  shrub  borders,  this  precaution 
may  not  be  necessary.  In  fact,  it  is  desirable  that  the  flowers 
fill  all  the  space  between  the  overhanging  branches  and  the  sod. 

It  is  surprising  how  few  of  the  uncommon  or  little  known 
annuals  really  have  great  merit  for  general  purposes.  There  is 
nothing  yet  to  take  the  place  of  the  old-time  groups,  such  as 
amaranths,  zinnias,  calendulas,  daturas,  balsams,  annual  pinks, 
candytufts,  bachelor's  buttons,  wallflowers,  larkspurs,  petu- 
nias, gaillardias,  snapdragons,  coxcombs,  lobelias,  coreopsis  or 
calliopsis,  California  poppies,  four-o' clocks,  sweet  sultans, 
phloxes,  mignonettes,  scabiosas,  nasturtiums,  marigolds,  China 
asters,  salpiglossis,  nicotianas,  pansies,  portulacas,  castor  beans, 
poppies,  sunflowers,  verbenas,  stocks,  alyssums,  and  such  good 
old  running  plants  as  scarlet  runners,  sweet  peas,  convolvuluses, 
ipomeas,  tall  nasturtiums,  balloon  vines,  cobeas.  Of  the  annual 
vines  of  recent  'ntroduction,  the  Japanese  hop  has  at  once  taken 
a  prominent  place  for  the  covering  of  fences  and  arbors,  although 
it  has  no  floral  beauty  to  recommend  it. 

For  bold  mass-displays  of  color  in  the  rear  parts  of  the  grounds 
or  along  the  borders,  some  of  the  coarser  species  are  desirable. 
Good  plants  for  such  use  are :  sunflower  and  castor  bean  for  the 
back  rows;  zinnias  for  bright  effects  in  the  scarlets  and  lilacs; 
African  marigolds  for  brilliant  yellows;  nicotianas  for  whites. 
Unfortunately,  we  have  no  robust-growing  annuals  with  good 


XVI.    A  back  3'ard  with  summer  house,  and  gardens  beyond. 


THE   GROWING   OF   THE   ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS       245 

blues.  Some  of  the  larkspurs  and  the  browallias  are  perhaps 
the  nearest  approach  to  them. 

For  lower-growing  and  less  gross  mass-displays,  the  following 
are  good:  California  poppies  for  oranges  and  yellows;  sweet 
sultans  for  purples,  whites,  and  pale  yellows;  petunias  for 
purples,  violets,  and  whites;  larkspurs  for  blues  and  violets; 
bachelor's  buttons  (or  cornflowers)  for  blues;  calliopsis  and 
coreopsis  and  calendulas  for  yellows;  gaillardias  for  red-yellows 
and  orange-reds;  China  asters  for  many  colors. 

For  still  less  robustness,  good  mass-displays  can  be  made  with 
the  following:  alyssums  and  candytufts  for  whites;  phloxes  for 
whites  and  various  pinks  and  reds;  lobelias  and  browallias  for 
blues;  pinks  for  whites  and  various  shades  of  pink;  stocks 
for  whites  and  reds;  wallflowers  for  brown-yellows;  verbenas  for 
many  colors. 

A  garden  of  pleasant  annual  flowers  is  not  complete  that 
does  not  contain  some  of  the  '' everlastings"  or  immortelles. 
These  ''paper  flowers"  are  always  interesting  to  children. 
They  are  not  so  desirable  fcr  the  making  of  "dry  bouquets" 
as  for  their  value  as  a  part  of  a  garden.  The  colors  are  bright, 
the  blooms  hold  long  on  the  plant,  and  most  of  the  kinds  are 
very  easy  to  grow.  My  favorite  groups  are  the  different  kinds 
of  xeranthemums  and  helichrysums.  The  globe  amaranths, 
with  clover-like  heads  (sometimes  known  as  bachelor's  but- 
tons), are  good  old  favorites.  Rhodanthes  and  acrocliniums 
are  also  good  and  reliable. 

The  ornamental  grasses  should  not  be  overlooked.  They  add 
a  note  to  the  flower-garden  and  to  bouquets  that  is  distinct 
and  can  be  secured  by  no  other  plants.  They  are  easily  grown. 
Some  of  the  good  annual  grasses  are  Agrostis  nebulosa,  the 
brizas,  Bromus  hrizwformis,  the  species  of  eragrostis  and  pennise- 
tums,  and  Coix  Lachryma  as  a  curiosity.  Such  good  lawn 
grasses  as  arundo,  pampas-grass,  eulalias,  and  erianthus  are 
perennials  and  are  therefore  not  included  in  this  discussion. 


246  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Some  of  the  most  reliable  and  easily  grown  annuals  are  given 
in  the  following  lists  (under  the  common  trade  names). 

List  of  annuals  by  color  of  flowers. 

White  Flowers 

Ageratum  Mexicanum  album. 

Alyssum,  common  sweet ;  compacta. 

Centranthus  macrosiphon  albus. 

China  asters. 

Convolvulus  major. 

Dianthus,  Double  White  Margaret. 

Iberis  amara ;   coronaria,  White  Rocket. 

Ipomoea  hederacea. 

Lavatera  alba. 

Malope  grandiflora  alba. 

Matthiola  (Stocks),  Cut  and  Come  Again;  Dresden  Perpetual;  Giant 

Perfection ;  White  Pearl. 
Mirabilis  longiflora  alba. 
Nigella. 

Phlox,  Dwarf  Snowball;   Leopoldii. 
Poppies,  Flag  of  Truce ;   Shirley ;   The  Mikado. 
Zinnia. 

Yellow  and  Orange  Flowers 
Cacalia  lutea. 

Calendula  officinalis,  common;    Meteor;   sulphurea;   suffruticosa. 
Calliopsis  bicolor  marmorata ;  cardaminefolia ;  elegans  picta. 
Cosmidium  Burridgeanum. 
Erysimum  Perofskianum. 
Eschscholtzia  Californica. 
Hibiscus  Africanus;  Golden  Bowl. 
Ipomoea  coccinea  lutea. 
Loasa  tricolor. 
Tagetes,  various  kinds.    . 
Thunbergia  alata  Fryeri ;  aurantiaca. 
Tropaeolum,  Dwarf,  Lady  Bird ;  Tall,  Schulzi. 
Zinnia.  j 


THE    GROWING    OF    THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS        247 

Blue  and  Purple  Flowers 

Ageratum  Mexicanum  ;  JNIexicanum,  Dwarf. 

Asperula  setosa  azurea. 

Brachycome  iboridifolia. 

Browallia  Czerniakowski ;  elata. 

Centaurea  Cyanus,  Victoria  Dwarf  Compact ;  Cyanus  minor. 

China  asters  of  several  varieties. 

Convolvulus  minor ;  minor  unicaulis. 

Gilia  achillesefolia ;  capitata, 

Iberis  umbellata ;  umbellata  lilacina. 

Kaulfussia  amelloides;  atroviolacea. 

Lobelia  Erinus ;  Erinus,  Elegant. 

Nigella. 

Phlox  variabilis  atropurpurea. 

Salvia  farinacea. 

Specularia. 

Verbena,  Black-blue;  caerulea;  Golden-leaved. 

Whitlavia  gloxinioides. 

Red  and  Rose-red  Flowers 
Abromia  umbellata. 
Alonsoa  grandiflora. 
Cacalia,  Scarlet. 
Clarkia  elegans  rosea. 
Convolvulus  tricolor  roseus. 

Dianthus,  Half  Dwarf  Early  Margaret;  Dwarf  Perpetual;  Chinensis. 
Gaillardia  picta. 
Ipomoea  coccinea ;  volubilis. 

Matthiola  annuus ;  Blood-red  Ten  Weeks ;  grandiflora,  Dwarf. 
Papaver  (Poppy)  cardinale;  Mephisto. 
Phaseolus  multiflorus. 

Phlox,  Large-flowering  Dwarf ;  Dwarf  Fireball ;  Black  Warrior. 
Salvia  coccinea. 
Saponaria. 

Tropseolum,  Dwarf,  Tom  Thumb. 
Verbena  hybrida,  Scarlet  Defiance. 
Zinnia. 


248 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


Useful  annuals  for  edgings  of  beds 
and  walks,  and  for  ribbon-beds. 


Ageratum,  blue  and  white. 

Alyssum,  sweet. 

Brachycome. 

Calandrinia. 

Clarkia. 

Collinsias. 

Dianthiises  or  pinks. 

Cilia. 

Gj^psophila  muralis. 

Iberis  or  candytufts. 


Leptosiphons. 

Lobelia  Erinus. 

Nemophilas. 

Nigellas. 

Portulaca  or  rose  moss  (Fig.  243 ' 

Saponaria  Calabrica. 

Specularia. 

Torenia. 

Whitlavia. 


Annuals  that  continue  to  bloom  after  frost. 

This  list  is  compiled  from  Bulletin  161,  Cornell  Experiment 
Station.  Several  hundred  kinds  of  annuals  were  grown  at  this 
station  (Ithaca,  N.Y.)  in  1897  and  1898.  The  notes  are  given 
in  the  original  trade  names  under  which  the  seedsmen  supplied 
the  stock. 


Abronia  umbellata. 

Adonis  aestivalis ;  autumnale. 

Argemone  grandiflora. 

Calendulas. 

Callirrhoe. 

Carduus  benedictus.  ^ 

Centaurea  Cyanus. 

Centauridium. 

Centranthus  macro- 

Cerinthe  retorta.        [siphon. 

Cheiranthus  Cheiri. 

Chrysanthemums . 

Convolvulus  minor ;  tricolor. 

Dianthus  of  various  kinds. 

Elsholtzia  cristata. 


243.   Portulaca,  or  rose  moss. 


THE    ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  ANNUALS 


249 


Erysimum  Perofskianum ;  Arkansanum. 

Eschscholtzias,  in  several  varieties  (Fig.  249). 

Gaillardia  picta, 

Gilia  achilleaefolia ;  capitata ;  laciniata ;  tricolor. 

Iberis  affinis. 

Lavatera  alba. 

Matthiolas  or  stocks. 

CEnothera  rosea ;  Lamarckiana ; 

Phlox  Drummondii.        [Drummondii. 

Podolepis  affinis ;  chrysantha. 

Salvia  coccinea;  farinacea;  Horminum. 

Verbenas. 

Vicia  Gerardi. 

Virginian  stocks.  244.  Pansies. 

Viscaria  elegans ;  oculata ;  Coeli-rosa. 

List  of  annuals  suitable  for  bedding  {that 
is,  for  "mass  effects  "  of  color). 

A  list  of  this  kind  is  necessarily  both  incomplete  and  im- 
perfect, because  good  new  varieties  are  frequently  appearing, 
and  the  taste  of  the  gardener  must  be  consulted.  Any  plants 
may  be  used,  broadly  speaking,  for  bedding;  but  the  following 
hst  (given  in  terms  of  trade  names)  suggests  some  of  the  best 
subjects  to  use  when  beds  of  solid,  strong  color  are  desired. 

Adonis  aestivalis ;  autumnalis. 

Ageratum  Mexicanum ;  Mt'xicanum,  Dwarf. 

Bartonia  aurea. 

Cacalia. 

Calendula  officinalis,  in  several  forms ;   pluvialis ;   Pongei ;  sulphurea, 

fl.  pi. ;  suffruticosa. 
Calliopsis  bicolor  marmorata ;  cardaminefolia ;  elegans  picta. 
Callirrboe  involucrata ;  pedata;  pedata  nana. 
Centaurea  Americana;  Cyanus,   Victoria  Dwarf    Compact;     Cyanus 

minor ;  suaveolens. 
China  asters. 
Chrysanthemum  Burridgeanum ;    carinatum ;  coronarium ;    tricolor. 


250  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Convolvulus  minor;  tricolor. 

Cosmidium  Burridgeanum. 

Delphinium,  single ;  double. 

Dianthus,  Double  White  Half  Dwarf  Margaret;  Dwarf  Perpetual; 
Caryophyllus  semperflorens ;  Chinensis,  double ;  dentosus  hybridus ; 
Heddewigii;  imperialis;  laciniatus,  Salmon  Queen;  plumarius; 
s.uperbus,  dwarf  fl.  pi. ;  picotee. 

Elsholtzia  cristata. 

Eschscholtzia Calif ornica ;  crocea;  Mandarin;  tenuifolia  (Fig.  249). 

Gaillardia  picta ;  picta  Lorenziana. 

Gilia  achilleaef olia ;  capitata ;  laciniata ;  linifolia ;  nivalis ;  tricolor. 

Godetia  Whitneyi ;  grandiflora  maculata ;  rubicunda  splendens. 

Hibiscus  Africanus ;  Golden  Bowl. 

Iberis  affinis ;  amara ;  coronaria ;  umbellata. 

Impatiens  or  balsam. 

Lavatera  alba ;  trimestris. 

Linum  grandiflorum. 

Madia  elegans. 

Malope  grandiflora. 

Matricaria  eximia  plena. 

Matthiola  or  stock,  in  many  forms ;  Wallflower-leaved;  bicornis. 

Nigella,  or  Love-in-a-mist. 

Qllnothera  Drummondii ;  Lamarckiana  ;  rosea ;  tetraptera. 

Papaver  or  poppy,  of  many  kinds ;  cardinale ;  glaucum ;  umbrosum. 

Petunia,  bedding  kinds. 

Phlox  Drummondii,  in  many  varieties. 

Portulaca  (Fig.  243). 

Salvia  farinacea ;  Horminum;  splendens. 

Schizanthus  papilionaceus ;  pinnatus. 

Silene  Armeria ;  pendula. 

Tagetes,  or  marigold,  in  many  forms ;  erecta ;  patula ;  signata. 

Tropaeolum,  Dwarf. 

Verbena  auriculseflora ;  Italica  striata;  hybrida;  caerulea;  Golden- 
leaved. 

Viscaria  Coeli-rosa ;  elegans  picta ;  oculata. 

Zinnia,  Dwarf;  elegans  alba;  Tom  Thumb;  Haageana;  coccinea 
plena  (Fig.  247). 


THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS — ANNUALS  251 

List  of  annuals  by  height. 

It  is  obviously  impossible  to  make  any  accurate  or  definite 
list  of  plants  in  terms  of  their  height,  but  the  beginner  may 
be  aided  by  approximate  measurements.  The  following  lists 
are  made  from  Bulletin  161  of  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station, 
which  gives  tabular  data  on  many  annuals  grown  at  Ithaca, 
N.Y.  Seeds  of  most  of  the  kinds  were  sown  in  the  open,  rather 
late.  ''The  soil  varied  somewhat,  but  it  was  light  and  well 
tilled,  and  only  moderately  rich."  Ordinary  good  care  was 
given  the  plants.  The  average  height  of  the  plants  of  each 
kind  at  full  growth,  as  they  stood  on  the  ground,  is  given  in 
these  Hsts.  Of  course,  these  heights  might  be  less  or  more  with 
different  soils,  different  treatments,  and  different  climates;  but 
the  figures  are  fairly  comparable  among  themselves. 

The  measurements  are  based  on  the  stock  supplied  by  leading 
seedsmen  under  the  trade  names  here  given.  It  is  not  unlikely 
that  some  of  the  discrepancies  were  due  to  mixture  of  seed  or 
to  stock  being  untrue  to  type;  some  of  it  may  have  been  due 
to  soil  conditions.  The  same  name  may  be  found  in  two  divi- 
sions in  some  instances,  the  plants  having  been  grown  from 
different  lots  of  seeds.  The  lists  will  indicate  to  the  grower 
what  variations  he  may  expect  in  any  large  lot  of  seeds. 

Seedsmen's  catalogues  should  be  consulted  for  what  the 
trade  considers  to  be  the  proper  and  normal  heights  for  the 
different  plants. 

Plants  6-8  in.  high 

Abronia  umbellata  grandiflora. 

Alyssum  compactum. 

Callirrhoe  involucrata. 

Godetia,  Bijou,  Lady  Albemarle,  and  Lady  Satin  Rose. 

Gypsophila  muralis. 

Kaulfussia  amelloides. 

Leptosiphon  hybridus. 


252  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

Linaria  Maroccana. 

Lobelia  Erinus  and  Erinus  Elegant. 

Nemophila  atomaria,  discoidalis,  insignis,  and  inaculata. 

Nolana  lanceolata,  paradoxa,  prostrata,  and  atriplicifolia. 

Podolepis  chrysantha  and  affinis. 

Portulaca. 

Rhodanthe  Manglesii. 

Sedum  caeruleum. 

Silene  pendula  ruberrima. 

Verbena. 

Plants  9-12  in.  high 
Alyssum. 

Asperula  setosa  aziirea. 
Brachycome  iberidifolia. 
Calandrinia  umbellata  elegans. 
Callirrhoe  pedata  nana, 
Centaurea  Cyanus  Victoria  Dwarf  Compact. 
Centranthus  macrosiphon  nanus. 

Collinsia  bicolor,  candidissima  and  multicolor  marmorata. 
Convolvulus  minor  and  tricolor. 
Eschscholtzia  crocea. 
Gamolepis  Tagetes. 
Gilia  laciniata  and  linifolia. 

Godetia  Duchess  of  Albany,  Prince  of  Wales,  P'airy  Queen,  Brilliant, 
grandiflora  maculata,  Whitneyi,  Duke  of  Fife,  rubicunda  splendens- 
Helipterum  corymbiflorum. 
Iberis  affinis. 

Kaulfussia  amelloides  atroviolacea,  and  a.  kermesina. 
Leptosiphon  androsaceus  and  densiflorus. 
Linaria  bipartita  splondida. 

Matthiola  dwarf  Forcing  Snowflake,  Wallflower-leaved. 
Mesembryanthemum  crystaUinum. 
Mimulus  cupreus. 

Nemophila  atomaria  oculata  and  marginata. 
Nigella. 

Nolana  atriplicifolia. 
Omphalodes  linifolia. 


THE    ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  ANNUALS  253 

(Enothera  rosea  and  tetraptera. 

Phlox,  Large-flowering  Dwarf  and  Dwarf  Snowball. 

Rhodanthe  macula ta. 

Saponaria  Calabrica. 

Schizanthus  pinnatus. 

Silene  Armeria  and  pendula. 

Specularia. 

Viscaria  oculata  caerulea. 

Plants  13-17  in.  high 

Abronia  umbellata. 

Acroclinium  album  and  roseum. 

Brachycome  iberidifolia  alba. 

Browallia  Czerniakowski  and  elata. 

Cacalia. 

Calandrinia  grandiflora. 

Calendula  sulphurea  flore  pleno. 

Chrysanthemum  carinatum. 

Collomia  coccinea. 

Convolvulus  minor  and  minor  unicaulis. 

Dianthus,  the  Margaret  varieties,  Dwarf  Perpetual,  Caryophyllus  sem- 
perflorens,  Chinensis,  dentosus  hybridus,  Heddewigii,  imperialis, 
laciniatus,  plumarius,  superbus  dwarf,  picotee,  Comtesse  de  Paris. 

Elsholtzia  cristata. 

Eschscholtzia  Californica,  Mandarin,  maritima  and  tenuifolia. 

Gaillardia  picta. 

Gilia  achillesefolia  alba  and  nivalis. 

Hehpterum  Sanfordii. 

Hieraeium,  Bearded. 

Iberis  amara,  coronaria  Empress,  coronaria  Wliite  Rocket,  Sweet- 
scented,  umbellata,  umbellata  carnea.  and  umbellata  lilacina. 

Leptosiphon  carmineus. 

Lupinus  nanus,  sulphureus. 

Malope  grandiflora. 

Matthiola,  Wallflower-leaved  and  Virginian  stock. 

Mirabilis  alba. 

Nigella. 


254  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

CEnothera  Lamarckiana. 

Palafoxia  Hookeriana. 

Papaver,  Shirle}^  and  glaucum. 

Petunia. 

Phlox  of  many  kinds. 

Salvia  Horminum. 

Schizanthus  papilionaceus. 

Statice  Thouini  and  superba. 

Tagetes,  Pride  of  the  Garden  and  Dwarf. 

Tropseolum,  many  kinds  of  dwarf. 

Venidium  calendula  ceum. 

Verbena  of  several  kinds. 

Viscaria  Coeli-rosa,  elegans  picta,  oculata,  and  oculata  alba. 

Whitlavia  gloxinioides. 

Plants  18-23  in.  high 

Adonis  aestivalis  and  autumnalis. 

Amarantus  atropurpureus. 

Calendula  ofhcinalis.  Meteor,  suffruticosa,  and  pluvialis. 

Calliopsis  bi  color  marmorata. 

Callirrhoe  pedata. 

Centaurea  Cyanus  minor  Blue  and  suaveolens. 

Centranthus  macrosiphon. 

Chrysanthemum  Burridgeanum,  carinatum,  tricolor  Dunnettii. 

Cosmidium  Burridgeanum. 

Delphinium  (annual). 

Eutoca  Wrangeliana. 

Gaillardia  picta  (Fig.  245),  Lorenziana. 

Gilia  achilleaefolia,  a.  rosea  and  tricolor. 

Helichr5'^sum  atrosanguineum. 

Ipomoea  coccinea. 

Linum  grandiflorum. 

Loasa  tricolor. 

Lupinus  albus,  hirsutus  and  pubescens. 

Malope  grandiflora  alba. 

Matricaria  eximia  plena. 

Matthiola,  several  kinds. 


THE    ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  ANNUALS  255 

(Enothera  Drummondii. 

Papaver  Mephisto,  cardinale,  c.  hybridum,  c.  Danebrog,  umbrosum. 

Tagetes  patula  and  signata. 

Vicia  Gerardii. 

Whitlavia  grandiflora  and  g.  alba. 

Xeranthemum  album  and  multiflorum  album. 

Zinnias  of  many  kinds  (all  not  mentioned  in  other  lists). 

Plants  24-30  in.  high 

Bartonia  aurea. 

Calendula  officinalis  fl.  pi.,  Prince  of  Orange  and  Pongei. 

Calliopsis  elegans  picta. 

Cardiospermum  Halicacabum. 

Carduus  benedictus. 

Centaurea  Cyanus  minor  Emperor  William. 

Cheiranthus  Cheiri. 

Chrysanthemum  tricolor,  t.  hybridum  and  coronarium  sulphureum 

fl.pl. 
Clarkia  elegans  rosea. 
Datura  cornucopia. 

Erysimum  Arkansanum  and  Perofskianum. 
Eutoca  viscida. 
Gilia  capitata  alba. 

Helichrysum  bracteatum  and  macranthum. 
Hibiscus  Africanus. 
Impatiens,  all  varieties. 
Lupinus  hirsutus  pilosus. 
Matthiola  Blood-red  Ten  Weeks,  Cut  and  Come  Again,  grandiflora. 

annuus,  and  others. 
Mirabilis  Jalapa  folio  variegata  and  longiflora  alba. 
Papaver,  American  Flag,  Mikado  and  Double. 
Perilla  laciniata  and  Nankinensis. 
Salvia  farinacea. 

Tagetes  Eldorado,  Nugget  of  Gold,  erecta  fl.  pi. 
Xeranthemum  annuum  and  superbissimum  fl.  pi. 
Zinnia  elegans  alba  fl.  pi. 


256 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


Plants  31-40  in.  high 

Acrodinium,  double  rose  and  white. 
Adonis  sestivalis. 

Ageratum  Mexicanum  album  and  blue. 
Amarantus  bicolor  ruber. 
Argemone  grandiflora. 
Centaurea  Americana. 
Centauridium  Drummondii. 
Cerinthe  retorta.  [c.  double  yellow. 

Chrysanthemum  coronarium  album  and 
Clarkia  elegans  alba  fl.  pi. 
Cleome  spinosa. 
Cyclanthera  pedata. 
Datura  fastuosa  and  New  Golden 
Euphorbia  marginata.  [Queen. 

Gilia  capitata  alba. 
Helianthus   Dwarf   double  and  cucu- 
Hibiscus  Golden  Bowl.        [merifolius. 
Lavatera  trimestris. 
Madia  elegans. 
Martynia  craniolaria. 
Salvia  coccinea. 

Plants  41  in.  and  above. 

Adonis  autumnalis. 

Helianthus  of  several  garden  kinds  (not 


245.   Gaillardia,  one  of  the  showy  garden 
annuals. 


mentioned  elsewhere). 
Ricinus,  all  varieties. 
And  many  climbing  vines. 


Distances  for  planting  annuals 
(or  plants  treated  as  annuals). 

Only  an  approximate  idea  can  be  given  of  the  distances 
apart  at  which  annuals  should  be  planted,  for  not  only  does 
the  distance  depend  on  the  fertility  of  the  land  (the  stronger 
the  soil  the  greater  the  distance),  but  also  on  the  object  the 
person  has  in  growing  the  plants,  whether  to  produce  a  solid 


THE   ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS — ANNUALS 


257 


mass  effect  or  to  secure  strong  specimen  plants  with  large 
individual  bloom.  If  specimen  plants  are  to  be  raised,  the 
distances  should  be  liberal. 

The  distances  here  given  for  some  of  the  commoner  annuals 
may  be  considered  to  represent  average  or  usual  spaces  that 
single  plants  may  occupy  under  ordinary  conditions  in  flower- 
beds, although  it  would  probably  be  impossible  to  find  any  two 
gardeners  or  seedsmen  who  would  agree  on  the  details.  These 
are  suggestions  rather  than  recommendations.  It  is  always 
well  to  set  or  sow  more  plants  than  are  wanted,  for  there  is 
danger  of  loss  from  cut-worms  and  other  causes.  The  general 
tendency  is  to  let  the  plants  stand  too  close  together  at  maturity. 
In  case  of  doubt,  place  plants  described  in  books  and  cata- 
logues as  very  dwarf  at  six  inches,  those  as  medium-sized  at 
twelve  inches,  very  large  growers  at  two  feet,  and  thin  them  out 
if  they  seem  to  demand  it  as  they  grow. 

The  plants  in  these  lists  are  thrown  into 
four  groups  (rather  than  all  placed  together 
with  the  numbers  after  them)  in  order  to 
classify  the  subject  in  the  beginner's  mind. 


6  to  9  inches  apart 

Ageratum,  very  dwarf  kinds. 

Alyssum. 

Asperula  setosa. 

Cacalia. 

Candytuft. 

Clarkia,  dwarf. 

Collinsia. 

Gysophila  muralis. 

Kaulfussia. 

Larkspur,  dwarf  kinds. 

Linaria. 

Linum  grandiflorum. 

Lobelia  Erinus.    Mignonette,  dwarf  kinds. 


246.  Wild  phlox  (P. 
macvlata),  one  of  the 
parents  of  the  peren- 
nial garden  phloxes. 


258 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


:ty 


247.    Zinnias.      Often   known   as    "youth 
and  old  age.'* 


Pansy. 

Phlox,  very  dwarf  kinds. 

Pinks,  very  dwarf  kinds. 

Rhodanthe. 

Schizopetalon. 

Silene  Armeria. 

Snapdragon,  dwarf. 

Sweet  pea. 

Torenia. 


10  to  15  inches  apart 

Those  marked  (ft.)  are  examples  of  plants  that  may  usually  stand 
at  twelve  inches. 
Abronia  (ft.). 
Acroclinium. 
Adlumia. 

Adonis  autumnalis. 
Ageratum,  tall  kinds. 
Alonsoa. 

Aster,  China,  smaller  kinds  (ft.). 
Balsam. 
Bartonia. 
Browalha. 
Calendula. 

California  poppy  (Eschscholtzia).    ^^^^ 
Calliopsis. 
Cardiospermum. 

Carnation,    flower-garden   kinds 
Celosia,  small  kinds.  [(ft.). 

Centaurea  Cyanus. 
Centauridium  (ft.). 
Centranthus  (ft.). 
Clarkia,  tall  (ft.). 
Convolvulus  tricolor  (ft.). 
Gaillardia,  except  on  strong  land. 
Gilias. 
Glaucium. 
Godetia  (ft.). 


248.   Improved  perennial  phlox. 


THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  ANNUALS 


259 


Gomphrena. 
Gypsophila  elegans. 
Helichr3'sum  (ft.). 
Hunnemannia. 
Jacobaea.  [kinds. 

Larkspur,    tall    annual 
Malope.  [varieties. 

Marigold,    intermediate 
Mignonette,  tall  kinds. 
Mesembryanthemum 

(ice-plant)  (ft.). 
Morning-glory. 
Nasturtium,  dwarf. 
Nemophila. 
Nigella. 
Petunia. 

Phlox  Drummondii. 
Pinks. 
Poppies    (6   to    18    in., 

according  to  variety). 
Portulaca  (ft.). 
Salpiglossis  (ft.). 
Scabiosa  (ft.). 
Schizanthus. 
Snapdragon,  tall  kinds. 
Statice  (ft.). 
Stock  (ft.). 

Tagetes,  dwarf  French. 
Thunbergia  (ft.). 
Verbena. 

Whitlavia  (ft.),      [(ft.). 
Zinnia,  very  dwarf  kinds 

18  to  24  inches 
Amarantus. 
Ammobium. 
Argemone. 

Aster,  China,  the  big  kinds  (or  rows  2  ft.  apart  and  plants  1  ft.  in  row) . 
Callirrhoe. 


249. 


Eschscholtzia,  or  California  poppy.   One-half 
size. 


260 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


Canterbury  bell  (up  to  3  ft.). 
Celosia,  large  kinds  (up  to  30  in.). 

Chrysanthemum,  annual. 

Cosmos,  smaller  kinds. 

Euphorbia  marginata. 

Four  o'clock  (up  to  30  in.) 

Hop,  Japanese.         [to  30  in.). 

Kochia,  or  summer  cypress  (up 

Marigold,  tall  kinds. 

Nasturtium,  tall,  if  allowed  to 
spread  on  the  ground. 

Nicotiana  (up  to  30  in.). 

CEnothera,  tall  kinds. 

Salvia       coccinea       {splendens 
grandiflord) ,  about  2  ft. 

Zinnia,  tall  kinds  (up  to  3  ft). 

About  3  feet  or  more 

Caladium. 

Cosmos,  tall  kinds  (2  to  3  ft.). 

Dahlia. 

Datura. 

Martynia. 

Ricinus  or  castor  bean. 
Solanums. 

Sunflower,  tall  kinds. 
Wigandia. 

3.  Hardy  Herbaceous  Perennials 

There  is  a  rapidly  growing  appreciation  of  perennial  herbs, 
not  only  as  flower-garden  and  lawn  subjects,  but  as  parts  of 
native  landscapes.  Every  locality  yields  its  wild  asters,  golden- 
rods,  columbines,  iris,  trilliums,  lilies,  anemones,  pentstemons, 
mints,  sunflowers,  or  other  plants ;  and  many  of  these  also 
make  good  subjects  for  the  home  grounds. 

It  is  important  to  remember  that  some  perennial  herbs  begin 
to  fail  after  one  to  three  seasons  of  full  bloom.     It  is  a  good 


250.   A  modern  peony. 


XVII.   A  rose-garden.     La  France  rose. 


THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  PERENNIALS  261 

plan  to  have  new  plants  coming  on  to  take  their  place;  or  the 
old  roots  may  be  taken  up  in  the  fall  and  divided,  only  the 
fresh  and  strong  parts  being  planted  again. 

Perennial  herbs  are  propagated  in  various  ways,  —  by  seeds, 
and  by  cuttings  of  the  stems  and  roots,  but  mostly  by  the  easy 
method  of  division.  On  the  raising  of  these  plants  from  seeds, 
William  Falconer  writes  as  follows  in  Dreer's  '^Garden  Book" 
for  1909:  — 

''Hardy  perennials  are  easily  grown  from  seed.  In  many 
cases  they  are  a  little  slower  than  annuals,  but  with  intelligent 
care  they  are  successfully  raised,  and  from  seed  is  an  excellent 
way  to  get  up  a  big  stock  of  perennials.  Many  sorts,  if 
sown  in  spring,  bloom  the  first  year  from  seeds  as  early  as 
annuals;  for  instance:  gaillardia,  Iceland  poppies,  Chinese 
larkspur,  platycodon,  etc.  Others  do  not  bloom  until  the 
second  year. 

''The  amateur  may  have  more  success  and  less  bother  growing 
perennials  from  seed  sown  in  the  open  ground  than  from  any 
other  way.  Prepare  a  bed  in  a  nice,  warm,  sheltered  spot  in 
the  garden,  preferably  not  very  sunny.  Let  the  surface  of  the 
bed  be  raised  four  or  five  inches  above  the  general  level,  and 
the  soil  be  a  mellow  fine  earth  on  the  surface.  Draw  shallow 
rows  across  the  surface  of  the  bed  three  or  four  inches  apart, 
and  here  sow  the  seeds,  keeping  the  varieties  of  one  kind  or 
nature  as  much  together  as  practicable,  covering  the  seeds 
thinly;  press  the  whole  surface  gently,  water  moderately,  then 
dust  a  little  fine  loose  soil  over  all.  If  the  weather  is  sunny  or 
windy,  shade  with  papers  or  a  few  branches,  but  remove  these  in 
the  evening.  When  the  seedlings  come  up,  thin  them  out  to 
stiffen  those  that  are  left,  and  when  they  are  two  or  three  inches 
high,  they  are  fit  for  transplanting  into  permanent  quarters. 
All  this  should  be  done  in  early  spring,  say  March,  April,  or 
May.  Again,  in  July  or  August  perennials  are  very  easily 
raised  out  of  doors,  and  much  in  the  same  way  as  above.     Or 


262  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

they  may  be  sown  in  early  spring  indoors,  in  the  window,  the 
hotbed,  the  coldframe,  or  the  greenhouse,  preferably  in  boxes 
or  pans,  as  for  growing  annuals.  Some  gardeners  sow  seed 
right  in  the  coldframe.  I  have  tried  both  ways,  and  find  the 
boxes  best,  as  the  different  varieties  of  seeds  do  not  come  up  at 
the  same  time,  and  you  can  remove  them  from  the  close  frame 
to  more  airy  quarters  as  soon  as  the  seed  comes  up,  whereas,  if 
sown  in  a  frame,  you  would  have  to  give  them  all  the  same 
treatment.  When  the  seedlings  are  large  enough,  I  trans- 
plant them  into  other  boxes,  and  put  them  into  a  shady  part 
of  the  garden,  but  not  under  the  shade  of  trees,  as  there  they 
will '  draw '  too  much.  About  the  fifteenth  of  September  plant 
them  in  the  garden  where  they  are  to  bloom,  or  if  the  garden 
is  full  of  summer-flowering  plants,  4)ut  them  in  beds  in  the 
vegetable  garden,  to  be  planted  out  in  the  early  spring,  and 
give  them  a  light  covering  of  straw  or  manure  to  keep  sudden 
changes  of  the  weather  away  from  them." 

Hardy  perennial  herbs  may  be  planted  in  September  and  Oc- 
tober with  excellent  results;  also  in  spring.  See  that  they  are 
protected  with  mulch  in  winter. 

Perennial  herbs  suitable  for  lawn  and  '^ planting''  effects. 

Some  of  the  striking  plants  that  are  valuable  for  lawn  plant- 
ing in  the  North,  chosen  chiefly  on  account  of  their  size,  foliage, 
and  habit,  are  mentioned  in  the  following  brief  list.  They  may 
or  may  not  be  suitable  for  flower-gardens.  It  is  impossible  to 
give  to  this  list  any  degree  of  completeness;  but  the  names 
here  printed  will  be  suggestive  of  the  kinds  of  things  that  may 
be  used.     The  asterisk  (*)  denotes  native  plants. 

Yucca,  Yucca  filarnentosa* 
Funkia,  Funkia,  of  several  species. 
Peltate  saxifrage,  Saxifraga  peltata* 
Rose  mallow,  Hibiscus  Moscheutos.* 


THE   ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS  —PERENNIALS  263 

Elecampane,  Inula  Helenium  (Fig.  251). 

Wild  sunflowers,  Helianthus  *  of  different  species,  especially  H.  orygalis, 
H.  giganteus,  H.  grosse-serratus,  H.  strurriosus. 


251.   Elecampane,     Naturalized  in  old  fields  and  along  roadsides. 

Compass-plants,  Silphium*  of  several  species,  especially  S.  terebiw 

thinaceum,  S.  laciniatum,  S.  perfoliatum. 
Sacaline,  Polygonum  Sachalinense. 
Japanese  knotweed.  Polygonum  cuspidatum. 
Bocconia,  Bocconia  cordata. 
Wild  wormwood.  Artemisia  Stelleriana  *  and  others. 


264  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Butterfly-weed,  Asdepias  tuberosa* 

Wild  asters,  ^s^er*  of  many  species,  especially^.  Novce-AnglioB  (best)  ^ 

A.  IcBvis,  A.  multiflorus,  A.  spectahilis. 
Golden-rods,  Solidago  *  of  various  species,  especially  S.  speciosa,  S. 

nemoralis,  S.  juncea,  S.  gigantea. 
Loose-strife,  Lythrum  Salicaria. 
Flags,  Iris  of  many  species,  some  native. 
Japanese  wind-flower.  Anemone  Japonica. 
Goat's  beard,  Aruncus  sylvester  {Spircea  ArunciLs).^ 
Baptisia,  Baptisia  tinctoria.'^ 
Thermopsis,  Thermopsis  mollis.^ 
Wild  senna.  Cassia  Alarilandica.^ 
Wild  trefoil,  Desmodium  Canadense  *  and  others. 
Ribbon  grass,  Phalaris  arundinacea^  var.  picta. 
Zebra  grass,  Eulalia  (or  Miscanthus)  species,  and  varieties. 
Wild  panic  grass,  Panicum  virgatum.^ 
Bambusas  (and  related  things)  of  several  sorts. 
Ravenna  grass,  Erianthus  Ravennce. 
Arundo,  Arundo  Donax,  and  var.  variegata. 
Reed,  Phragmites  communis.^ 

This  and  the  remaining  plants  of  the  list  should  be  planted  in  the  edges  of 
water  or  in  bogs  (the  list  might  be  greatly  extended). 

Wild  rice,  Zizania  aquatica.^ 

Cat-tail,  Typha  angustifolia  *  and  T.  latifolia.* 

Lizard 's-tail,  Saururus  cernuus.^ 

Peltandra,  Peltandra  undulata.'^ 

Orontium,  Orontium  aquaticum.* 

Native  calla,  Calla  palustris.^ 

A  brief  seasonal  flower-garden  or  border 
list  of  herbaceous  perennials. 

To  facilitate  making  a  selection  of  perennial  herbs  for  bloom, 
the  plants  in  the  following  list  are  arranged  according  to  their 
flowering  season,  beginning  with  the  earliest.  The  name  of  the 
month  indicates  when  they  usually  begin  to  bloom.  It  should 
be  understood  that  the  blooming  season  of  plants  is  not  a  fixed 


THE    ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  PERENNIALS  265 

period,  but  varies  more  or  less  with  localities  and  seasons. 
These  dates  are  apphcable  to  most  of  the  middle  and  northern 
states.  Natives  to  North  America  are  marked  with  an  asterisk 
(*).     This  Hst  is  by  Ernest  Walker. 

March 

Blue  Wind-flower,  Anemone  blanda.  6  in.  March-May.  Sky-blue, 
star-like  flowers.     Foliage  deeply  cut.     For  border  and  rockwork. 

Bloodroot,  Sanguinaria  Canadensis.*  6  in.  March-April.  Pure 
white.     Glaucous  foliage.     Partial  shade.     Border  or  rock-work. 

April 

Mountain  Rock-cress,   Arabis    alhida.    6   in.     April-June.     Flowers 

pure  white;    close  heads  in  profusion.     Fragrant.     For  dry  places 

and  rock-work. 
Purple   Rock-cress,  Auhrietia  deltoidea.      6    in.     April-June.     Small 

purple  flowers  in  great  profusion. 
Daisy,  Bellis  perennis,     4-6  in.     April-July.     Flowers  white,  pink,  or 

red ;  single  or  double.     The  double  varieties  are  the  more  desirable. 

Cover  the  plants  in  winter  with  leaves.     May  be  raised  from  seed, 

like  pansies. 
Spring  Beauty,  Claytonia  Virginica.*     6  in.     April-May.     Clusters  of 

light  pink  flowers.     Partial  shade.     From  six  to  a  dozen  should  be 

set  together. 
Shooting   Star,   Dodecatheon  Meadia*     1   ft.     April-May.     Reddish 

purple  flowers,  orange-yellow  eye,  in  clusters.     Cool,  shady  location, 

Plant  several  in  a  place. 
T>og's-hsine,DoronicumplantagmeumvsiV.excelsum.    20  in.  April- June. 

Large,  showy  flowers ;  orange-yellow.     Bushy  plants. 
Liver-leaf,    Hepaiica  acutiloba*    and     triloba*     6    in.      April-May. 

Flowers  small  but  numerous,  varying  white  and  pink.      Partial 

shade. 
Hardy  Candytuft,  Iberis   sempervirens.     10   in.     April-May.     Small 

white  flowers  in  clusters ;  profuse.     Large,  spreading,  evergreen  tufts. 
Alpine  Lamp-flower,  Lychnis  alpina*     6  in.     April-May.     Flowers 

star-like,  in  showy  heads ;  pink.     For  border  and  rockery. 


266 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


Early  Forget-me-not,  Myosoiis  dissitiflora.     6  in.     April- June.     Small 
clusters  of  deep  sky-blue  flowers.     Tufted  habit. 


252.   The  wild  Trillium  grandiflorui 


Everblooming  F.,  M.  pah'stris  var.  semper flor ens.     10  in.    Light  blue ; 

spreading  habit. 
Blue-bells,  Mertensia  Virginica.*     1  ft.     April-May.     Flowers  blue, 


i 


THE    ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  PERENNIALS  267 

changing  to  pink;    pendent;    tubular;    not  showy,  but  beautiful. 

Rich  soil.     Partial  shade. 
Tree  Peony,  PoBonia  Moutan.     (See  May,  Pseonia.) 
Moss    Pink,  Phlox   subulata."^    6    in.     April-June.     Numerous  deep 

pink,  small  flowers;    creeping  habit;   evergreen.     Suitable  for  dry 

places  as  a  covering  plant. 
Trilliums.*     Of  several  species ;  always  attractive  and  useful  in  the 

border  (Fig.  252).     They  are  common   in  rich  woods  and   copses. 

Dig  the  tubers  in  late  summer  and  plant  them  directly  in  the  border. 

The  large  ones  will  bloom  the  following  spring.     The  same  may  be 

said  of  the  erythronium,  or  dog's-tooth  violet  or  adder's  tongue,  and 

of  very  many  other  early  wild  flowers. 

May 

Ajuga  reptans.  6  in.  May-June.  Spikes  of  purple  flowers.  Grows 
well  in  shady  places ;  spreading.     A  good  cover  plant. 

Mad  wort,  Alyssum  saxaiile  var.  compactum.  1  ft.  May-June.  Flow- 
ers fragrant,  in  clusters,  clear  golden-yellow.  Foliage  silvery. 
Well-drained  soil.     One  of  the  best  yellow  flowers. 

Columbine,  Aquilegia  glandulosa  and  others  (Fig.  253).  1  ft. 
May-June.  Deep  blue  sepals;  white  petals.  Aquilegias  are  old 
favorites.     (See  June.)     The  wild  A.  Canadensis^  is  desirable. 

Lily-of-the- Valley,  Convallaria  niajalis.^  8  in.  May-June.  Racemes 
of  small  white  bells ;  fragrant.  Well  known.  Partial  shade.  (See 
page  381.) 

Fumitory,  Corydalis  nobilis.  1  ft.  May- June.  Large  clusters  of  fine 
yellow  flowers.     Bushy,  upright  habit.     Does  well  in  partial  shade. 

Bleeding-Heart,  Dicentra  spectahilis.  2|  ft.  May-June.  Well  known. 
Racemes  of  heart-shaped,  deep  pink  and  white  flowers.  Will  bear 
partial  shade. 

Crested  Iris,  Iris  cristata.'^  6  in.  May-June.  Flowers  blue,  fringed 
with  yellow.     Leaves  sword-shaped. 

German  Iris,  /.  Germanica.  12-15  in.  May-June.  Numerous  varie- 
ties and  colors.  Large  flowers,  3-4  on  a  stem.  Broad,  glaucous, 
sword-shaped  leaves. 

Peony,  Pceonia  offi^cinalis.  2  ft.  May-June.  This  is  the  well-known 
herbaceous  peony.     There  are    numerous    varieties    and  hybrids 


268 


MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 


milk 

m 


253.  One  of  the  columbines. 


THE    ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  PERENNIALS  269 

Large  flowers,  4-6  in.  across.     Crimson,  white,  pink,  yellowish,  etc. 

Suitable  for  lawn  or  the  border.     Fig.  250. 
Tree  Peony,  P.  Moutan.     4  ft.  April-May.     Numerous  named  varieties. 

Flowers  as  above,  excepting  yellow.     Branched,  dense,  shrubby 

habit. 
Meadow  Sage,  Salvia  pratensis.     2|  ft.     May-June,  August.     Spikes 

of  deep  blue  flowers.     Branching  from  the  ground. 

June 

Achillea  Ptarmica,  fl.  pi.,  var.  "The  Pearl."     I  ft.     June-August. 

Small  double  white  flowers,  in  few-flowered  clusters.     Rich  soil. 
Wind-flower,  Anemone   Pennsylvanica.*      18    in.     June-September. 

White  flowers  on  long  stems.     Erect  habit.     Does  well  in  the  shade. 
St.  Bruno's  Lily,  Paradisea  Liliastrum.     18  in.     June-July.     Bell-like, 

white  flowers  in  handsome  spikes. 
Golden-spurred  Columbine,  Aquilegia  chrysantha.*   3  ft.   June-August. 

Golden  flowers  with  slender  spurs ;  fragrant. 
Rocky    Mountain    Columbine,    A.    ccerulea*     1    ft.     June- August. 

Flowers  with  white  petals  and  deep  blue  sepals,  2-3  in.  in  diam- 
eter.    (See  May.) 
Woodruff,  Asperula  odorata.     6  in.     June- July.     Small  white  flowers. 

Herbage  fragrant  when  wilted.     Does  well    in   shade;    spreading 

habit.     Used  for  flavoring  drinks,  scenting  and  protecting  garments. 
i4s^i76eJa7?omca  (incorrectly  called  Spiraea).    2  ft.     June-July.     Small 

white  flowers  in  a  feathery  inflorescence.     Compact  habit. 
Poppy    Mallow,     Callirrhoe     involucrata."^     10    in.      June-October. 

Large  crimson  flowers,  with  white   centers.     Trailing  habit.     For 

border  and  rockery. 
Carpathian  Harebell,  Campamda  Carpatica  (Fig.  254).     8  in.    June- 
September.     Flowers  deep   blue.     Tufted   habit.     For    border   or 

rockery.     Good  for  cutting. 
C.glomeratavsir.Dahurica.     2  ft.     June- August.     Deep  purple  flowers 

in  terminal  clusters.     Branching  from  the  ground.     Erect  habit. 
Canterbury  Bell,  C.  Medium.     An  old  favorite.     It  is  biennial,  but 

blooms  the  first  season  if  sown  early. 
Corydalis  lutea.     1  ft.     June-September.     Flowers  yeUow,  in  terminal 

clusters.     Loose  branching  habit.     Glaucous  foliage. 


270 


MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 


Scotch  Pink,  Dianthus  plumarius.     10  in.     June-July.     White  and 

pink-ringed  flowers  on  slender  stems.     Densely  tufted  habit. 
Fringed  Pink,  D.  superbus.     18  in.     July-August.      Fringed  flowers. 

Lilac  tint. 
Gas   Plant,   Diciamnus   Fraxinella.     3   ft.     June.      Flowers    purple, 

showy,  fragrant;  in  long  spikes. 
Regular  habit.  Var.  aZ6a.   White. 
Gaillardia  arisiata.*     2  ft.     June- 
October.      Showy    orange    and 
maroon  flowers  on  long  stems. 
Good  for  cutting.     Hybrid  gail- 
lardias  offer  quite  a  variety  of 
brilHant  colors. 
Heuchera  sanguinea.^  18  in.  June- 
September.       Flowers    in    open 
panicles,    scarlet,    on    clustered 
stems    from    a    tufted    mass   of 
pretty  foliage. 
Japan  Iris,  Iris  Icevigata  (/.  Kcemp- 
feri).   2-3  ft.    June-July.    Large 
flowers    of    various     colors,    in 
variety.  Green,  sword-like  leaves. 
Dense  tufted  habit.      Prefers  a 
moist  situation. 
Blazing  Star,  Liatris  spicata.^    2  ft. 
June-August.      Spikes    of    fine, 
254.  Campanula  Carpatica.  gmall   purple   flowers.      Slender 

foliage.     Unbranched,    erect  stems.     Will  grow  in  the  poorest  soil. 
Iceland  Poppy,  Papaver  nudicaule.^     1  ft.     June-October.     Bright 
yellow  flowers.     A  close,  dense  habit.     Erect,  naked  stems.     The 
varieties  Album,  white,  and  Miniatum,  deep  orange,  are  also  de- 
sirable. 
Oriental  Poppy,  P.  orientale.     2-4  ft.  June.     Flowers  6-8  in.  across; 
deep  scarlet,  with  a  purple  spot  at  the  base  of  each  petal.     There  are 
other  varieties  of  pink,  orange,  and  crimson  shades. 
Pentstemon  barbatus  var.  Torreyi.^     3-4  ft.      June-September.     Crim- 
son flowers  in  long  spikes.     Branching  from  the  base.     Erect  habit. 


THE   ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS — PERENNIALS  271 

Perennial  Phlox,  P/i/ox  panic w^a/a  *  and  hybrids  with  P.  maculata* 
2-3  ft.  June.  A  great  variety  of  colors  in  selfs  and  variegated 
forms.     Flowers  borne  in  large,  flat  panicles.     (Figs.  246,  248.) 

Rudbeckia  maxima.'^  5-6  ft.  August.  Large  flowers ;  cone-like  cen- 
ter and  long,  drooping,  yellow  petals. 

Dropwort,  Ulmaria  Filipendula.  3  ft.  June-July.  White  flowers  in 
compact  clusters.  Tufted  foliage,  dark  green  and  handsomely  cut. 
Erect  stems.     (Often  referred  to  Spiraea.) 

Adsim's'!<ieed\e,  Yucca  filamentosa*  4-5  ft.  June-July.  Waxen  white, 
pendulous,  liliaceous  flowers  in  a  great  thyrsus.  Leaves  long,  nar- 
row, dark  green,  with  marginal  filaments.  For  the  lawn,  and  for 
massing  in  large  grounds. 

July 

Hollyhock,  Althcea  rosea.  5-8  ft.  Summer  and  fall.  Flowers  white, 
crimson,  and  yellow,  lavender  and  purple.  Stately  plants  of  spire- 
like habit ;  useful  for  the  back  of  the  border,  or  beds  and  groups. 
The  newer  double  varieties  have  flowers  as  fine  as  a  caniellia.  The 
plant  is  nearly  biennial,  but  in  rich,  well-drained  soil  and  with  winter 
protection  it  becomes  perennial.  Easily  grown  from  seed,  bloom- 
ing the  second  year.  Seeds  may  be  sown  in  August  in  frames  and 
carried  over  winter  in  the  same  place.  The  first  year's  bloom  is 
usually  the  best.    (See  page  376.) 

Yellow  Chamomile,  Anthemis  tinctoria.  12-38  in.  July-November. 
Flowers  bright  yellow,  1-2  in.  in  diameter.  Useful  for  cutting. 
Dense,  bushy  habit. 

Delphinium  Chinense.  3  ft.  July-September.  Variable  colors ;  from 
deep  blue  to  lavender  and  white.     Fine  for  the  border. 

D.  formosum.  4  ft.  July-September.  Fine  spikes  of  rich  blue 
flowers.     One  of  the  finest  blue  flowers  cultivated. 

Funkia  lancifolia.     (See  under  August.) 

Helianthus  multijlorus,'^  var.  Jl.  pi.  4  ft.  July-September.  Large 
double  flowers,  of  a  fine  golden  color.  Erect  habit.  An  excellent 
flower. 

Lychnis  Viscaria  var.  flore  plena.  12-15  in.  July-August.  Double, 
deep  rose-red  flowers  in  spikes.     For  groups  and  masses. 

Monarda  didyma.*  2  ft.  July-October.  Showy  scarlet  flowers  in 
terminal  heads. 


272  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

Pentstemon  grandiflorus*  2  ft.  July-August.  Leafy  spikes  of 
showy  purple  flowers. 

P.  IcBvigatus  var.  Digitalis.'^  3  ft.  July-August.  Pure  white  flowers 
in  spikes,  with  purple  throats. 

Platycodon  grandiflorum  (Campanula  grandiflora) .  3  ft.  July- 
September.  Deep  blue,  bell-shaped  flowers.  Dense,  fine,  erect 
habit. 

P.  Mariesi.  1  ft.  July-September.  Flowers  larger;  deep  violet- 
blue.     Heavier  foliage. 

August 

Day  Lily,  Funkia  subcordata.  18  in.  August-October.  Trumpet, 
lily-like,  pure-white  flowers  in  clusters,  borne  upon  a  stalk  from  the 
midst  of  a  group  of  heart-shaped  green  leaves. 

F.  lancifolia  var.  alho-marginata.  July-August.  Lavender  flowers. 
Lance-like  leaves  margined  with  white. 

Flame  Flower,  Kniphojia  aloides  {Tritoma  Uvaria).  3  ft.  August- 
September.  Bright  orange-scarlet  flowers,  in  close,  dense  spikes, 
at  the  summit  of  several  scape-like  stems.  Leaves  slender,  forming 
a  large  tuft.  For  lawn  and  borders.  Hardy  only  when  covered  with 
litter  or  straw  in  winter. 

Cardinal  Flower,  Lobelia  cardinalis.'^  2i-4  ft.  August-September. 
Flowers  intense  cardinal-red,  of  unrivaled  brilliancy.  Tall  spikes. 
Stems  clustered;   erect. 

Giant  Daisy,  Chrysanthemum  (or  Pyrethrum)  uliginosum.  3-5  ft. 
July-October.  Flowers  white,  with  golden  centers.  About  2  in. 
across.     A  stout,  upright,  bushy  plant.     Useful  for  cutting. 

Golden  Glow,  Rudbeckia  laciniata.^  6-7  ft.  August-September.  Large 
double  golden-yellow  flowers  in  great  profusion.  Bushy  habit. 
Cut  off  when  done  flowering.  Leaves  appear  at  the  base  and  a  new 
crop  of  flowers,  on  stems  about  1  ft.  high,  appear  in  October. 

Goldenrod,  Solidago  rigida.'^  3-5  ft.  August-October.  Flowers 
large  for  this  genus,  in  close,  short  racemes  in  a  corymbose-paniculate 
cluster.  Fine,  deep  yellow.  Erect  habit.  One  of  the  best  of  the 
goldenrods. 


THE    ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  PERENNIALS  273 

September 

Japanese  Wind-flower,  Anemone  Japonica.     2  ft.     August-October. 

Flowers  large,  bright  red.     One  of  the  best  autumn  flowers. 
A.  Japonica  var.  alba.     Flowers    pure  white,  with   yellow  centers. 

Fine  for  cutting. 

October 

Hardy  Chrysanthemums.  The  Chinese  and  Japanese  Chrysanthemums, 
so  well  known,  are  hardy  in  light,  well-drained  soils,  if  well  protected 
with  litter  or  leaves  during  the  winter,  and  in  such  situations  will 
stand  without  protection  south  of  Indianapolis.  Chrysanthemums 
are  gross  feeders,  and  should  have  a  rich  soil.     (See  page  365.) 

But  there  is  a  race  of  hardier  or  border  chrysanthemums  that  is  again 
coming  into  favor,  and  it  is  sure  to  give  much  satisfaction  to  those  who 
desire  flowers  in  latest  fafl.  These  chrysanthemums  are  much  like 
the  "artemisias"  of  our  mother's  gardens,  although  improved  in  size, 
form,  and  in  range  of  color. 

One  hundred  extra-hardy  perennial  herbs. 

The  following  list  of  100  ''best  hardy  perennials"  is  adapted 
from  a  report  of  the  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Ottawa,  Ontario. 
These  plants  are  chosen  from  over  1000  species  and  varieties 
that  have  been  on  trial  at  that  place.  Those  considered  to  be 
the  best  twenty-five  for  Canada  are  marked  by  a  dagger  (f)  ; 
and  those  native  to  North  America  by  an  asterisk  (*) . 

Achillea  Ptarmica  flore  plena.  —  Height,  1  foot;  in  bloom  fourth  week 

of  June ;  flowers,  small,  pure  white,  double,  and  borne  in  clusters  ; 

blooming  freely  throughout  the  summer,  t 
Aconitum   autumnale.  —  Height,  3  to  4  feet;    September;     flowers, 

bluish  purple,  borne  in  loose  panicles. 
Aconitum  Napellus.  —  Height,  3  to  4  feet;  July;  flowers,  deep  blue, 

borne  on  a  large  terminal  spike ;  desirable  for  the  rear  of  the  border. 
Adonis  vernalis.  —  Height,  6  to  9  inches ;   first  week  of  May ;  flowers, 

large,  lemon-yellow,  borne  singly  from  the  ends  of  the  stems. 


274  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

Agrostemma  {Lychnis)  Coronaria  var.  atropurpurea.  —  Height,  1  to  2 

feet;  fourth  week  of  June;  flowers,  medium  size,  bright  crimson, 

borne  singly  from  the  sides   and  ends  of  the  stems ;   a  very  showy 

plant  with  silvery  foliage,  and  continues  to  bloom  throughout  the 

summer. 
Anemone  patens."^  —  Height  6  to  9  inches ;    fourth  week  of  April ; 

flowers,  large,  and  deep  purple. 
Anthemis  tinctoria  var.  Kelwayi.  —  Height,  1  to  2  feet ;   fourth  week 

of  June ;   flowers,  large,  deep  yellow,  borne  singly  on  long  stems ;   it 

continues  to  bloom  profusely  throughout  the  summer ;  is  very  showy 

and  valuable  for  cutting,  t 
Aquilegia  Canadensis.^  —  Height,  1  t)  IJ  feet;    third  week  of  May; 

flowers,  medium  size,  red  and  yellow. 
Aquilegia  chrysantha.^  —  Height,  3  to  4  feet ;    fourth  week  of  June ; 

flowers,  large,  bright  lemon-yellow,  with  long  slender  spurs ;    much 

later  than  other  columbines.! 
Aquilegia  ccerulea.'^  —  Height,   1   to  1^  feet;    fourth  week  of  May; 

flowers,  large,  deep  blue  with  white  center  and  long  spurs,  t 
Aquilegia  glandulosa.  —  Height,  1  foot ;   third  week  of  May ;   flowers, 

large,  deep  blue  with  white  center  and  short  spurs. 
Aquilegia  oxysepala.  —  Height,  1  foot ;  second  week  in  May ;  flowers, 

large,  deep  purplish    blue  with  blue  and  yellow  centers;    a  very 

desirable  early  species. 
Aquilegia  Siuarti.  —  Height  9  to  12  inches ;  third  week  of  May ;  flowers, 

large,  deep  blue  with  white  center ;  one  of  the  best. 
Arabis  alpina.  —  Height,  6  inches ;  first  week  in  May ;  flowers,  small, 

pure  white,  in  clusters. 
Arnebia  echioides.  —  Height,  9  inches ;    third  week  of  May ;   flowers, 

yellow,  borne  in  clusters  with  petals  spotted  with  purple.     One  of  the 

most  charming  of  early  flowering  plants. 
Asclepias  tuherosa.^  —  Height,   1|  to  2  feet;    third  week  of  July. 

Flowers,  bright  orange,  borne  in  clusters.     Very  showy. 
Aster  alpinus.^  —  Height,  9  inches;  first  week  of  June;  flowers,  large, 

bright  purple,  borne  on  long  stems  from  the  base  of  the  plant ;  the 

earliest  flowering  of  all  the  asters. 
Aster  Amellus  var.  Bessarahicus.  —  Height,  1  to  11  feet;  July  to  Sep- 
tember; flowers,  large,  deep  purple,  singly  on  long  stems;  very  fine.t 


THE   ORNAMENTAL    PLANTS  —  PERENNIALS  275 

Aster  Novce-AnglioB  var.  roseus*  —  Height,  5  to  7  feet ;  fourth  week  of 
August ;   flowers,  bright  pink,  borne  profusely  in  large  terminal  clus- 
ters ;  very  showy. 
Boltonia  asteroides*  —  Height,   4    to    5    feet ;    September ;    flowers, 

smaller  than   the  next,  pale  pink,  borne  very  profusely  in  large 

panicles;  much  later  than  the  next  species. 
Boltonia  latisquama*  —  Height,  4  feet;    first  week  of  August;  flowers, 

large,  white,  somewhat  resembUng  asters,  and  borne  very  profusely 

in  large  panicles. 
Campanula  Carpatica.  —  Height,  6  to  9  inches ;    first  week  of  July ; 

flowers,  medium  size,  deep  blue,  borne  profusely  in  loose  panicles ; 

continues  in  bloom  throughout  the  summer.     A  white  variety  of  this 

is  also  good. 
Campanula  Grossekii.  —  Height,  3  feet ;    first  week  of  July ;   flowers, 

large,  deep  blue,  borne  on  a  long  spike. 
Campanula  persicifolia.  —  Height,  3  feet ;  flowers,  large,  blue,  borne  in 

a  raceme  with  long  flower  stems.     There  are  also  white  and  double 

varieties  which  are  good. 
Clematis  recta.  —  Height,  4  feet ;  fourth  week  of  June ;  flowers,  small, 

pure  white,  borne  profusely  in  dense  clusters.     This  is  a  very  com- 
pact bushy  species  and  desirable  for  the  rear  of  the  border.     Clematis 

Jackmani  with  large  deep  purple  flowers  and  Clematis  Vitalba  with 

small  white  flowers,  are  excellent  climbing  sorts. 
Convallaria  majalis*  (Lily-of-the-valley) .  —  Height,  6  to  9  inches ;  latter 

part  of  May. 
Coreopsis  delphinifolia*  —  Height,  2  to  3  feet ;    first  week  of  July ; 

flowers,  large,  yellow,  with  dark  centers  and  borne  singly  with  long 

stems. 
Coreopsis  grandiflora.'^  —  Height,  2  to  3  feet ;   fourth  week  of  June ; 

flowers,  large,  deep  yellow,  borne  singly  on  long  stems,  blooming  pro- 
fusely throughout  the  summer. 
Coreopsis  lanceolata.^  —  Height,  2  feet ;  fourth  week  of  June ;  flowers 

large  though  slightly  smaller  than  the  last,  and  borne  on  long  stems, 

blooming  throughout  the  season,  t 
Delphinium  Cashmerianum.  —  Height,  1|  feet;    first  week    of  July; 

flowers,  pale  to  bright  blue,  in  large  open  heads,  t 
Dianthus  plumarius  flore  pleno. —  Height,  9  inches ;   second  week  of 


276  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

June ;  flowers,  large,  white  or  pink,  very  sweet  scented,  and  two  or 
three  borne  on  a  stem.  A  variety  called  Mrs.  Simkins  is  especially 
desirable,  being  very  double,  white  and  dehciously  perfumed,  almost 
equaling  a  carnation.     It  blooms  the  fourth  week  of  June. 

Dicentra  spectabilis  (Bleeding  Heart) .  —  Height,  3  feet ;  second  week  of 
May ;  flowers,  heart-shaped,  red  and  white  in  pendulous  racemes. 

Dictamnus  albus.  —  Height,  1 J  to  2  feet ;  second  week  of  June ;  flowers, 
white  with  an  aromatic  fragrance,  and  borne  in  large  terminal 
racemes.  A  well-known  variety  has  purple  flowers  with  darker 
markings. 

Doronicum  Caucasicum.  —  Height,  1  foot ;  second  week  of  May ;  flowers, 
large,  yellow,  and  borne  singly. 

Doronicum  plantagineum  var.  excelsum.  —  Height,  2  feet ;  third  week 
of  May ;  flowers,  large  and  deep  yellow,  t 

Epimedium  ruhrum.  —  Height,  1  foot ;  second  week  of  May ;  flowers, 
small,  bright  crimson  and  white,  borne  in  a  loose  panicle.  A  very 
dainty  and  beautiful  little  plant. 

Erigeron  speciosus.^  —  Height,  1 1  feet ;  second  week  of  July ;  flowers, 
large,  violet-blue,  with  yellow  centers,  and  borne  in  large  clusters 
on  long  stems. 

Funkia  subcordata  (grandiflora) .  —  Height,  1|  feet;  August;  flowers, 
large  and  white,  borne  in  racemes.  The  best  funkia  grown  at 
Ottawa ;  both  leaves  and  flowers  are  handsome. 

Gaillardia  aristata  var.  grandiflora.'^  —  Height,  1§  feet;  third  week  of 
June ;  flowers,  large,  yellow,  with  deep  orange  centers,  and  borne 
singly  on  long  stems.  The  named  varieties,  Superba  and  Perfec- 
tion, are  more  highly  colored  and  are  of  great  merit.  These  all 
continue  blooming  profusely  until  late  in  the  autumn,  f 

Gypsophila  paniculata  (Infant's  breath).  —  Height,  2  feet;  second 
week  of  July;  flowers,  smafl,  white,  borne  profusely  in  large  open 
panicles. 

Helenium  autumnale.^  —  Height,  6  to  7  feet;  second  week  of  July; 
flowers,  large,  deep  yellow,  borne  in  large  heads ;  very  ornamental  in 
late  summer. 

Helianthus  doronicoides.'^  —  Height,  6  to  7  feet ;  second  week  of 
August ;  flowers,  large,  bright  yellow,  and  borne  singly ;  continues 
blooming  for  several  weeks. 


THE   ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS— PERENNIALS  277 

Helianthus  multiflorus.'^  —  Height,  4  feet ;  flowers,  large,  double, 
bright  yellow,  and  borne  singly ;  a  very  striking  late-flowering  per- 
ennial. 

Heuchera  sanguinea.*  —  Height,  1  to  1^  feet;  flrst  week  of  June; 
flowers,  small,  bright,  scarlet,  borne  in  open  panicles;  continues 
blooming  throughout  the  summer. 

Hemerocallis  Dumortierii.  —  Height,  1^  feet;  second  week  of  June; 
flowers,  large,  orange-yellow,  with  a  brownish  tinge  on  the  outside, 
and  three  or  four  on  a  stem.f 

Hemerocallis  flava.  —  Height,  2  to  3  feet ;  latter  part  of  June ;  flowers, 
bright  orange-yellow  and  fragrant,  t 

Hemerocallis  minor.  —  Height,  1  to  1  ^  feet ;  second  week  of  July ; 
flowers,  medium  size  and  yellow ;  blooms  later  than  the  two  preced- 
ing species  and  has  a  smaller  flower  and  narrower  foliage. 

Hibiscus  MoscheuiosJ^  —  Height,  5  feet ;  third  week  of  August ;  flowers, 
very  large,  varying  in  color  from  white  to  deep  pink.  A  variety 
called  "Crimson  Eye"  is  very  good.  This  plant  makes  a  fine  show 
in  late  summer. 

Hypericum  Ascyron  (or  pyramidalum) ."^  —  Height,  3  feet;  fourth  week 
of  July ;  flowers,  large,  yellow,  and  borne  singly. 

Iberis  sempervirens.  —  Height,  6  to  12  inches;  third  week  of  May; 
flowers,  pure  white,  fragrant,  and  borne  in  dense  flat  clusters,  t 

Iris  Chamoeiris.  —  Height,  6  inches ;  fourth  week  of  May ;  flowers, 
bright  yellow  with  brown  markings. 

Iris  flavescens.  —  Height,  1§  to  2  feet;  first  week  of  June;  flowers, 
lemon-yellow  with  brown  markings. 

Iris  Florentina.  —  Height,  2  feet;  first  week  of  June;  flowers,  very 
large,  pale  blue  or  lavender,  sweet  scented,  t 

Iris  Germanica.  —  Height,  2  to  3  feet ;  first  week  of  June ;  flowers, 
very  large,  of  elegant  form;  color,  deep  Hlac  and  bright  purple, 
sweet  scented.    There  is  a  large  number  of  choice  varieties  of  this 

iris.t 
Iris  loevigata  {Kcempferi).  — Height,  1|  to  2  feet;  first  week  of  July; 

flowers,  purple  and  modified  colors,  very  large  and  distinct  in  color 

and  shape,  t 
Iris  pumila.  —  Height,  4  to  6  inches ;  third  week  of  May ;  flowers,  deep 

purple.     There  are  several  varieties. 


278  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING      ' 

Iris  Sibirica.  —  Height,  3  to  4  feet ;  fourth  week  of  ]May ;  flowers,  deep 

blue,  borne  on  long  stems  in  clusters  of  two  or  three.     This  species 

has  many  varieties. 
Iris  variegata.  —  Height,  1  to  1^  feet;    first  week  of  June;    flowers, 

yellow  and  brown,  veined  with  various  shades  of  brown. 
Lilium  auratum.  —  Height,  3  to  5  feet ;  July ;  flowers,  very  large,  white, 

with  a  yellow  central  band  on  each  petal,  and  thickly  spotted  with 

purple  and  red.     The  most  showy  of  all  lilies  and  a  splendid  flower. 

This  has  proved  hardy  at  the  Central  Experimental  Farm,  although  it 

has  been  reported  tender  in  some  localities.! 
Lilium  Canadense.^  —  Height,  2  to  3  feet ;  latter  part  of  May ;  flowers, 

yellow  to  pale  red  with  reddish  spots,  pendulous. 
Lilium  elegans.  —  Height,  6  inches ;   first  week  of  July ;  flowers,  pale 

red;  several  varieties  are  better  than  the  type. 
Lilium  speciosum.  —  Height,  2  to  3  feet ;  July ;  flowers,  large,  white, 

tinged  and  spotted  with  deep  pink  and  red.     Hardier  than  Lilium 

auratum  and  almost  as  fine.     There  are  several  fine  varieties,  f 
Lilium  superbum.^  —  Height,  4  to  6  feet ;  first  week  of  July ;  flowers, 

very  numerous,   orange  red,   thickly   spotted   with   dark    brown. 

An  admirable  lily  for  the  rear  of  the  border,  f 
Lilium  tenuifolium.  —  Height,   1^  to  2  feet;    third    week  of    June; 

flowers,  pendulous  and  bright  scarlet.     One  of  the  most  graceful  of 

all  lilies. 
Lilium  tigrinum.  —  Height,  2  to  4  feet;   flowers,  large,  deep  orange, 

spotted  thiclJy  with  purplish  black. 
Linum  perenne.  —  Height,  1|  feet;  first  week  of  June;  flowers,  large 

deep  blue,  borne  in  loose  panicles,  continuing  throughout  the  summer. 
Lobelia  cardinalts.^  —  Height,  2  to   3  feet;    August;   flowers,  bright 

scarlet,  borne  in  terminal  racemes ;  very  showy. 
Lychnis  Chalcedonica  flore  plena.  —  Height,  2  to  3  feet ;  first  week  of 

July ;  flowers,  bright  crimson,  double,  and  borne  in  terminal  racemes. 
Lysimachia  clethroides.  —  Height,  3  feet ;  fourth  week  of  July ;  flowers, 

white,  borne  in  long  spikes.     A  very  striking  late-flowering  perennial. 
Myosotis  alpestris.  —  Height,  6  inches ;   third  week  of  May ;   flowers, 

small,  bright  blue  with  a  yellowish  eye.     A  very  profuse  bloomer. 
(Enothera  Missouriensis.'^ —  Height,  1  foot ;  fourth  week  of  June ;  flowers, 

very  large,  rich  yellow,  and  borne  singly,  throughout  the  summer. 


THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  ~  PERENNIALS  279 

PoBonia  officinalis.  —  Height,  2  to  4  feet ;    early  part  of  July.     The 

double-flowered  varieties  are  the  best,  and  can  be  obtained  in  several 

colors  and  shades,  f 
Papaver  nudicaide.'^  —  Height,  1  foot ;  second  week  of  May ;  flowers, 

medium  size,  orange,  white,  or  yellow,  almost  continuously  until 

late  autumn,  t 
Papaver  orientale.  —  Height,  2  to  3  feet ;  first  week  of  June ;  flowers, 

very  large,  scarlet,  and  variously  marked,  according  to  variety,  there 

being  many  forms. 
Pentstemon  barbatus  var.  Torreyi.'^^  —  Height,  2  to  3  feet ;  first  week  of 

July ;  floAvers,  deep  red,  borne  in  long  spikes,  very  ornamental. 
Phlox  amoena."^  —  Height,  6  inches ;   second  week  of  May ;     flowers, 

medium  size,  bright  pink,  in  compact  clusters. 
Phlox  decussata^  (the  garden  perennial  hybrids). —  Height,  1  to  3  feet; 

third  week  of  July ;  flowers,  of  many  beautiful  shades  and  colors,  are 

found  in  the  large  number  of  named  varieties  of  this  phlox,  which 

continues  to  bloom  until  late  in  the  autumn,  t 
Phlox  reptans.^  —  Height,  4  inches;    fourth  week  of   May;    flowers, 

medium  size,  purple,  and  borne  in  small  clusters. 
Phlox  subulata^  (setacea).  —  Height,  6  inches;   third  week   of   May; 

flowers,  medium  size,  deep  pink,  and  borne  in  small  clusters. 
Platycodon  grandiflorum.  —  Height,  1^  to  2  feet;  second  week  of  July; 

flowers,  very  large,  deep  blue,  borne  singly  or  in  twos.f 
Platycodon  grandiflorum  var.  album.  —  A  white-flowered  variety  of  the 

above  and  makes  a  fine  contrast  to  it  when  they  are  grown  together. 

It  blooms  a  few  days  earlier  than  the  species. 
Platycodon  Mariesii.  —  Height,  1  foot ;  second  week  of  July ;  flowers, 

large  and  deep  blue. 
Polemonium    cceruleum.'^  —  Height,   2  feet ;    second   week   of    June ; 

flowers,  deep  blue,  borne  in  terminal  spikes. 
Polemonium  reptans.*  —  Height,  6  inches ;  third  week  of  May ;  flowers, 

medium  in  size,  blue,  and  borne  profusely  in  loose  clusters. 
Polemonium  Richardsoni.'^  —  Height,  6  inches ;  third  week  of  May ; 

flowers,    medium    in    size,    blue,    borne    profusely    in    pendulous 

panicles. 
Poientilla  hybrida  var.  versicolor.  —  Height,   1  foot ;   fourth  week  of 

June ;  flowers,  large,  deep  orange  and  yellow,  semi-double. 


280  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

Primula  cortusoides.  —  Height,  9  inches ;  third  week  of  May ;  flowers, 
small,  deep  rose,  in  compact  heads. 

Pyrethrum  (or  Chrysanthemum)  uliginosum.  —  Height,  4  feet ;  Sep- 
tember ;  flowers,  large,  white  with  yellow  centers,  and  borne  singly 
on  long  stems. 

Rvdbeckia  laciniata^  (Golden  Glow).  —  Height,  5  to  6  feet;  August; 
flowers,  large,  lemon-yellow,  double,  and  borne  on  long  stems. 
One  of  the  best  of  lately  introduced  perennials,  t 

Rvdbeckia  maxima.^  —  Height,  5  to  6  feet ;  July  and  August ;  flowers, 
large,  with  a  long  cone-shaped  center  and  bright  yellow  rays,  and 
borne  singly.     The  whole  plant  is  very  striking. 

Scabiosa  Caucascia.  —  Height,  1  §  feet ;  first  week  of  July ;  flowers, 
large,  light  blue,  and  borne  singly  on  long  stems,  very  freely  through- 
out remainder  of  the  summer. 

Solidago  Canadensis  *  (Golden-rod) .  —  Height,  3  to  5  feet ;  first  week  of 
August;  flowers,  small,  golden  yellow,  and  borne  in  dense  pani- 
cles. 

Spircea  (properly  Aruncus)  astilboides.  —  Height,  2  feet ;  fourth  week 
of  June ;  flowers,  small,  white,  very  numerous,  and  borne  in  many 
branched  panicles.     Both  foliage  and  flowers  are  ornamental. 

SpircBa  (or  Ulmaria)  Filipendula.  —  Height,  2  to  3  feet ;  third  week  of 
June;  flowers,  pure  white,  borne  profusely  in  loose  panicles.  The 
foliage  of  this  species  is  also  very  good.  There  is  a  double  flowered 
variety  which  is  very  effective,  f 

Spircea  {Ulmaria)  purpurea  var.  elegans.  —  Height,  2  to  3  feet;  first 
week  of  July ;  flowers,  whitish  with  crimson  anthers,  borne  very  pro- 
fusely in  panicles. 

Spircea  Ulmaria  ( Ulmaria  pentapetala) .  —  Height,  3  to  4  feet ;  second 
week  of  July ;  flowers,  very  numerous,  dull  white,  borne  in  large  com- 
pound heads,  having  a  soft,  feathery  appearance. 

Spircea  venusta  {Ulmaria  rubra  var.  venusta).  — Height,  4  feet;  second 
week  of  July ;  flowers,  small,  bright  pink,  borne  profusely  in  large 
panicles,  t 

Statice  latifolia.  — Height,  1|  feet;  first  week  of  July;  flowers,  small, 
blue,  borne  very  profusely  in  loose  panicles.  Very  effective  in  the 
border. 

Thalicirum  aquilegifolium.  —  Height,  4    to   5   feet ;   fourth  week   of 


THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS— BULBS  281 

June;   flowers,  small,  white  to  purplish,  very  numerous  and  borne 
in  large  panicles. 
Trollius  Europijeus.  —  Height,  1|   to   2  feet;   fourth   week  of   May; 
flowers,  large,  bright  yellow,  continuing  a  long  time. 

4.   Bulbs  and  Tubers 

(See  the  particular  culture  of  the  different  kinds  in  Chapter 
VIII ;  and  instructions  for  forcing  on  p.  345.) 

It  is  customary  to  write  of  bulbs  and  tubers  together,  be- 
cause the  tops  and  flowers  of  all  the  bulbous  and  tuberous 
plants  spring  from  large  reservoirs  of  stored  food,  giving  rise  to 
similar  methods  of  culture  and  of  storage. 

Structurally,  the  bulb  is  very  different  from  the  tuber,  how- 
ever. A  bulb  is  practically  a  large  dormant  bud,  the  scales 
representing  the  leaves,  and  the  embryo  stem  lying  in  the  center. 
Bulbs  are  condensed  plants  in  storage.  The  tuber,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  a  solid  body,  with  buds  arising  from.it.  Some  tubers 
represent  thickened  stems,  as  the  Irish  potato,  and  some  thick- 
ened roots,  as  probably  the  sweet-potato,  and  some  both  stem 
and  root,  as  the  turnip,  parsnip,  and  beet.  Some  tubers  are  very 
bulb-like  in  appearance,  as  the  corms  of  crocus  and  gladiolus. 

Using  the  word  ''bulb"  in  the  gardener's  sense  to  include 
all  these  plants  as  a  cultural  group,  we  may  throw  them  into 
two  classes:  the  hardy  kinds,  to  be  planted  in  fall;  and  the 
tender  kinds,  to  be  planted  in  spring. 

Fall-planted  bulbs. 

The  fall-planted  bulbs  are  of  two  groups:  the  "Holland 
bulbs"  or  early  spring  bloomers,  as  crocus,  tulip  (Fig.  255), 
hyacinth  (Fig.  262),  narcissus  (Fig.  260),  squill  (Fig.  256), 
snowdrop;  the  summer  bloomers,  as  hlies  (Figs.  258,  259). 
The  treatments  of  the  two  groups  are  so  similar  that  they  may 
be  discussed  together. 


282 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


255.   Tulips,  the  warmest  of  spring  flowers. 


THE    ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS—  BULBS 


283 


All  these  bulbs  may  be  planted  as  soon  as  they  are  mature; 
but  in  practice  they  are  kept  till  late  September  or  October 
before  they  are  put  into 
the  ground,  as  nothing 
is  gained  by  earlier  plant- 
ing, and,  moreover,  the 
ground  is  usually  not 
ready  to  receive  them 
until  some  other  crop  is 
removed. 

These  bulbs  are  planted 
in  the  fall  (1)  because 
they  keep  better  in  the 
ground  than  when  stored  ; 
(2)  because  they  will  take 
root  in  fall  and  winter 
and  be  ready  for  the  first  warmth  of  spring;  (3)  and  because 
it  is  usually  impossible  to  get  on  the  ground  early  enough  in 
spring  to  plant  them  with  much  hope  of  success  for  that  season. 

The  bulbs  lie  dormant  until  spring,  so  far  as  outward  ap- 
pearances go;  they  are  mulched  to  insure  that  they  will  not 
start  in  warm  weather  of  fall  or  winter,  and  to  protect  the 
ground  from  heaving. 


256.    One  of  the  squills. — Scilla  hifolia. 


257.  A  purple-flowered  Amaryllis.  —  Lycoris  squamigera,  but  known  as 
Amaryllis  Hailii. 


284 


MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 


To  secure  good  bulbs  and  of  the  desired  varieties,  the  order 
should  be  placed  in  spring  or  early  summer.  For  flower-garden 
effects,  the  large  and  mature  bulbs  should  be  secured;  for 
colonizing  in  shrubbery  or  on  the  lawn,  the  smaller  sizes  may 
be  sufficient.  Insist  that  your  bulbs  shall  be  first  class,  for 
there  is  wide  difference  in  the  quality;  even  with  the  best  of 
treatment,  good  results  cannot  be  secured  from  poor  bulbs. 


258.   The  Japanese  gold-banded  lily.  —  Lilium  auratum. 

It  is  not  generally  known  that  there  are  autumn-flowering 
bulbs.  Several  species  of  crocus  bloom  in  the  fall,  C.  sativus 
(the  saffron  crocus)  and  C.  speciosus  being  the  ones  generally 
recommended.  The  colchicums  are  excellent  autumn-bloom- 
ing bulbs  and  should  be  more  generally  planted.  C.  autum- 
nale,  rosy  purple,  is  the  usual  species.  These  autumn-blooming 
bulbs  are  planted  in  August  or  early  September  and  treated  in 


I 


THE   ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS  — BULBS 


285 


general  the  same  as  other  similar  bulbs.     The  colchicums  usu- 
ally remain  in  the  ground  several  years  in  good  condition. 

All  kinds  of  bulbs  are  partial 
to  a  deep,  rich,  water-free  soil. 
This  is  no  small  part  of  their 
successful  culture.  The  spot 
should  be  well  drained,  either 
naturally  or  artificially.  In 
flattish  and  rather  moist  lands 
the  beds  may  be  made  above 
the  surface,  some  18  inches 
high,  and  bordered  with  grass. 
A  layer  of  rough  stones  a  foot 
deep  is  sometimes  used  in  the 
bottom  of  ordinary  beds  for 
drainage,  and  with  good  re- 
sults, when  other  methods  are 
not  convenient,  and  when 
there  is  fear  that  the  bed  may 
become  too  wet.  If  the  place 
is  likely  to  be  rather  wet, 
place  a  large  handful  of  sand 
where  the  bulb  is  to  go  and 
set  the  bulb  on  it.  This  will 
keep  the  water  from  standing 
around  the  bulb.  Very  good 
results  may  be  had  in  heavy 
soil  by  this  method. 

The  soil  for  bulbs  should  be  well  enriched  with  old  manure. 
Fresh  manure  should  never  be  allowed  close  about  the  bulb. 
The  addition  of  leafmold  and  a  little  sand  also  improves  the 
texture  of  heavy  soils.  For  lilies  the  leafmold  may  be  omit- 
ted. Let  the  spading  be  at  least  a  foot  deep.  Eighteen  inches 
will  be  none  too  deep  for  lilies.     To  make  a  bulb  bed,  throw 


259. 


One  of  the  common  wild  lilies. 
Lilium  Philadelphicum. 


286 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


out  the  top  earth  to  the  depth  of  6  inches.  Put  into  the  bottom 
of  the  bed  about  2  inches  of  well-rotted  manure  and  spade  it 
into  the  soil.  Throw  back  half  of  the  top  soil,  level  it  off  nicel}^, 
set  the  bulbs  firmly  on  this  bed,  and  then  cover  them  with  the 
remainder  of  the  earth;  in  this  way  one  will  have  the  bulbs 
from  3  to  4  inches  below  the  surface,  and  they  will  all  be  of 

uniform  depth  and  will 
give  uniform  results  if  the 
bulbs  themselves  are  well 
graded.  The  ''design" 
bed  may  be  worked  out 
easily  in  this  way,  for  all 
the  bulbs  are  fully  ex- 
posed after  they  are  placed, 
and  they  are  all  covered 
at  once. 

Of  course,  it  is  not  nec- 
essary that  the  home  gar- 
dener go  to  the  trouble  of 
removing  the  earth  and 
replacing  it  if  he  merely 
wants  good  blooms;  but  if 
he  wants  a  good  bed  as  a 
whole,  or  a  mass  effect,  he 
should  take  this  pains. 
In  the  shrubberies  and  on 
the  lawn  he  may  "stick 
them  in"  here  and  there,  seeing  that  the  top  of  the  bulb  is  3 
to  6  inches  beneath  the  surface,  the  depth  depending  on  the 
size  of  the  bulb  (the  bigger  and  stronger  the  bulb,  the  deeper 
it  may  go)  and  on  the  nature  of  the  soil  (they  may  go  deeper 
in  sand  than  in  hard  clay). 

As  the  time  of  severe  winter  freezing  approaches,  the  bed 
should  receive  a  mulch  of  leaves,  manure  or  litter,  to  the  depth 


260.  Common  species  of  narcissus. — 
a  a.  Narcissus  Psetido-Narcissus  or  daf- 
fodil ;    6.  Jonquil ;    c.  N.  Poeticus. 


THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  BULBS 


287 


of  4  inches  or  more,  according  to  the  latitude  and  the  kind  of 
material.  If  leaves  are  used,  3  inches  will  be  enough,  because 
the  leaves  lie  close  together  and  may  smother  out  the  frost 
that  is  in  the  ground  and  let  the  bulbs  start.  It  will  be  well 
to  let  the  mulch  extend  1  foot  or  more  beyond  the  margins  of 
the  bed.  When  cold  weather  is  past,  half  of  the  mulch  should 
be  removed.  The  remainder  may 
be  left  on  till  there  is  no  longer 
danger  of  frost.  On  removing  the 
last  of  the  mulch,  lightly  work  over 
the  surface  among  the  bulbs  with  a 
thrust-hoe. 

If  the  weather  happens  to  be  very 
bright  during  the  blooming  season, 
the  duration  of  the  flowers  may  be 
prolonged  by  light  shading  —  as 
with  muslin,  or  slats  placed  above 
the  beds.  If  planted  where  they 
have  partial  shade  from  surrounding 
trees  or  shrubbery,  the  beds  will  not 
need  attention  of  this  kind. 

Lihes  may  remain  undisturbed 
for  years.  Crocuses  and  tulips  may 
stand  two  years,  but  hyacinths 
should  be  taken  up  each  year  and 
replanted;  tulips  also  will  be  better 
for  the  same  treatment.  Narcissus  may  remain  for  some  years, 
or  until  they  show  signs  of  running  out. 

Bulbs  that  are  to  be  taken  up  should  be  left  in  the  ground 
till  the  foliage  turns  yellow,  or  dies  down  naturally.  This 
gives  the  bulbs  a  chance  to  ripen.  Cutting  off  the  foliage 
and  digging  too  early  is  a  not  uncommon  and  serious  mistake. 
Bulbs  that  have  been  planted  in  places  that  are  wanted  for 
summer  bedding  plants  may  be  dug  with  the  fohage  on  and 


261.   The  Belladonna  lily.  — 
Amaryllis  Belladonna. 


288 


MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 


heeled-in  under  a  tree,  or  along  a  fence,  to  stand  till  ripened. 
The  plant  should  be  injured  as  little  as  possible,  as  the  foliage 
of  this  year  makes  the  flowers  of  the  next.  When  the  foliage 
has  turned  yellow  or  died  down,  the  bulbs  —  after  cleaning,  and 

curing  them  for  a  few  hours  in 
the  sun  —  may  be  stored  in  the 
cellar  or  other  cool,  dry  place,  to 
await  fall  planting.  Bulbs  that 
are  lifted  prematurely  in  this  way 
should  be  planted  permanently  in 
the  borders,  for  they  will  not  make 
good  flower-garden  subjects  the 
following  year.  In  fact,  it  is  usu- 
ally best  to  buy  fresh,  strong 
bulbs  each  year  of  tulips,  hya- 
cinths, and  crocuses  if  the  best 
results  are  desired,  using  the  old 
bulbs  for  shrubberies  and  mixed 
borders. 

Crocuses  and  squills  are  often 
planted  in  the  lawn.  It  is  not  to 
be  expected  that  they  will  last 
more  than  two  to  three  years, 
however,  even  if  care  is  taken  not 
to  cut  the  tops  closely  when  the 
lawn  is  cut.  The  narcissus  (in- 
cluding daffodils  and  jonquils)  will 
remain  in  good  condition  for  years 
in  grassy  parts  of  the  place,  if  the  tops  are  allowed  to  mature. 


262.   The  common  Dutch 
hyacinth. 


List  of  outdoor  fall-planted  hulhs  for  the  North. 

Crocus.  Narcissus  (including  daffodil  and  jonquil). 

Hyacinth.  Scilla,  or  squill. 

Tulip.  Snowdrop  {Galanthus), 


THE   ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS^BULBS  289 

Snowflake  (Leucoium). 

Chionodoxa. 

Hardy  alliums. 

Bulbocodium. 

Camassia. 

Lily-of-the-valley. 

Winter  aconite  (ErarUhis  hyemalis). 

Dog-tooth  violets  (Erythronium) . 

Crown  imperial  {Fritillaria  Imperialis), 

Fritillary  {Fritillaria  Meleagris) . 

Trilliums. 

Lilies. 

Peonies,  tuberous  anemones,  tuberous  buttercups,  iris,  bleeding  heart, 
and  the  like,  may  be  planted  in  autumn  and  are  often  classed  with 
fall-planted  bulbs. 

Winter  hulhs  (p.  345). 

Some  of  these  bulbs  may  be  made  to  bloom  in  the  greenhouse, 
window-garden,  or  living  room  in  winter.  Hyacinths  are  par- 
ticularly useful  for  this  purpose,  because  the  bloom  is  less 
afifected  by  cloudy  weather  than  that  of  tulips  and  crocuses. 
Some  kinds  of  narcissus  also  ''force''  well,  particularly  the 
daffodil;  and  the  Paper- white  and  "  Chinese  sacred  Hly"  are 
practically  the  only  common  bulbs  from  which  the  home  gar- 
dener may  expect  good  bloom  before  Christmas.  The  method 
of  handUng  bulbs  for  winter  bloom  is  described  under  Win- 
dow-gardening (on  p.  345). 

Summer  bulbs. 

There  is  nothing  special  to  be  said  of  the  culture  of  the  so- 
called  summer-blooming  and  spring-planted  bulbs,  as  a  class. 
They  are  tender,  and  are  therefore  planted  after  cold  weather 
is  past.  For  early  bloom,  they  may  be  started  indoors.  Of 
course,  any  list  of  spring-planted  bulbs  is  relative  to  the  climate, 
u 


290  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

for  what  may  be  planted  in  spring  in  New  York  perhaps  may 
be  planted  in  the  fall  in  Georgia. 

The  common  ''summer  bulbs"  are:  — 


Gladiolus 

Calla 

Tuberose 

Calochortus 

Dahlia 

Alstremeria 

Canna 

Amaryllis 

Arum 

Colocasia 

5.  The  Shrubbery 
(Exclusive  of  coniferous  evergreens  and  climbing  plants.) 

The  common  hardy  shrubs  or  bushes  may  be  planted  in  fall 
or  spring.  In  the  northernmost  parts  of  the  country  and  in 
Canada  spring  planting  is  usually  safer,  although  on  well- 
drained  ground  and  when  thoroughly  mulched  the  plants  may 
even  there  do  well  if  planted  as  soon  as  the  leaves  drop  in  fall. 
If  the  shrubs  are  purchased  in  spring,  they  are  likely  to  have 
come  from  ''cellared  stock";  that  is,  the  nurserymen  dig 
much  of  their  stock  in  fall  and  store  it  in  cellars  built  for  the 
purpose.  While  stock  that  is  properly  cellared  is  perfectly 
reliable,  that  which  has  been  allowed  to  get  too  dry  or  which 
has  been  otherwise  improperly  handled  comes  on  very  slowly 
in  the  spring,  makes  a  poor  growth  the  first  year,  and  much  of 
it  may  die. 

In  the  planting  of  any  kind  of  trees  or  shrubs,  it  is  well  to 
remember  that  nursery-grown  specimens  generally  transplant 
more  readily  and  thrive  better  than  trees  taken  from  the  wild; 
and  this  is  particularly  true  if  the  stock  was  transplanted  in 
the  nursery.  Trees  that  transplant  with  difficulty,  as  the  papaw 
or  asimina,  and  some  nut  trees,  may  be  prepared  for  removal 
by  cutting  some  of  their  roots  —  and  especially  the  tap-root, 
if  they  have  such  —  a  year  or  two  in  advance. 

It  is  ordinarily  best  to  plow"  or  spade  the  entire  area  in  which 
the  shrubs  are  to  be  set.     For  a  year  or  two  the  ground  should 


THE    ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  SHRUBS  291 

be  tilled  between  the  shrubs,  either  by  horse  tools  or  by  hoes  and 
rakes.  If  the  place  looks  bare,  seeds  of  quick-growing  flowers 
may  be  scattered  about  the  edges  of  the  mass,  or  herbaceous 
perennials  may  be  used. 

The  larger  shrubs,  as  Hlacs  and  syringas,  may  be  set  about 
4  feet  apart;  but  the  smaller  ones  should  be  set  about  2  feet 
apart  if  it  is  desired  to  secure  an  immediate  effect.  If  after  a 
few  years  the  mass  becomes  too  crowded,  some  of  the  specimens 
may  be  removed  (p.  76). 

Throw  the  shrubs  into  an  irregular  plantation,  not  in  rows, 
and  make  the  inner  edge  of  the  mass  more  or  less  undulating 
and  broken. 

It  is  a  good  practice  to  mulch  the  plantation  each  fall  with 
light  manure,  leafmold,  or  other  material.  Even  though  the 
shrubs  are  perfectly  hardy,  this  mulch  greatly  improves  the 
land  and  promotes  growth.  After  the  shrub  borders  have 
become  two  or  three  years  old,  the  drifting  leaves  of  fall  will  be 
caught  therein  and  \vill  be  held  as  a  mulch  (p.  82). 

When  the  shrubs  are  first  planted,  they  are  headed  back  one 
half  or  more  (Fig.  45) ;  but  after  they  are  established  they  are 
not  to  be  sheared,  but  allowed  to  take  their  own  way,  and  after 
a  few  years  the  outermost  ones  will  droop  and  meet  the  green- 
sward (pp.  25,  26). 

Many  rapid-growing  trees  may  be  utilized  as  shrubs  by  cut- 
ting them  off  near  the  ground  every  year,  or  every  other  year, 
and  allowing  young  shoots  to  grow.  Basswood,  black  ash, 
some  of  the  maples,  tuHp  tree,  mulberry,  ailanthus,  paulownia, 
magnolias,  Acer  cmnpestre,  and  others  may  be  treated  in  this 
way  (Fig.  50). 

Nearly  all  shrul^s  bloom  in  spring  or  early  summer.  If 
kinds  blooming  late  in  summer  or  in  fall  are  desired,  they  may 
be  looked  for  in  baccharis,  caryopteris,  cephalanthus,  clethra, 
hamamelis,  hibiscus,  hydrangea,  hypericum,  lespedeza,  rhus 
(R.  Cotinus),  Sambucus  Canadensis  in  midsummer,  tamarisk. 


292  MANUAL   OF  GARDENING 

Plants  that  bloom  in  very  early  spring  (not  mentioning  such 
as  birches,  alders,  and  hazels)  may  be  found  in  amelanchier, 
cydonia,  daphne,  dirca,  forsythia,  cercis  (in  tree  list),  benzoin, 
lonicera  (L.  fragrantissima) ,  salix  (S.  discolor  and  other  pussy 
willows),  shepherdia. 

Shrubs  bearing  conspicuous  berries,  pods,  and  the  like,  that 
persist  in  fall  or  winter  may  be  found  in  the  genera  berberis 
(particularly  B.  Thunbergii),  colutea,  corylus,  Crataegus,  euony- 
mus,  ilex,  physocarpus,  ostrya,  ptelea,  pyracantha  (Plate  XIX) 
pyrus,  rhodotypos,  rosa  {R.  rugosa),  staphylea,  symphoricarpus, 
viburnum,  xanthoceras. 

List  of  shrubbery  plants  for  the  North. 

The  following  list  of  shrubs  (of  course  not  complete)  com- 
prises a  selection  with  particular  reference  to  southern  Michi- 
gan and  central  New  York,  where  the  mercury  sometimes 
falls  to  fifteen  degrees  below  zero.  Application  is  also  made 
to  Canada  by  designating  species  that  have  been  found  to  be 
hardy  at  Ottawa. 

The  list  is  arranged  alphabetically  by  the  names  of  the 
genera. 

The  asterisk  (*)  denotes  that  the  plant  is  native  to  North 
America. 

The  double  dagger  (J)  indicates  species  that  are  recommended 
by  the  Central  Experimental  Farms,  Ottawa,  Ontario. 

It  is  often  difficult  to  determine  whether  a  group  should  be 
listed  among  shrubs  or  trees.  Sometimes  the  plant  is  not 
quite  a  tree  and  is  yet  something  more  than  a  shrub  or  bush; 
sometimes  the  plant  may  be  distinctly  a  tree  in  its  southern 
range  and  a  shrub  in  its  northern  range;  sometimes  the  same 
genus  or  group  contains  both  shrubs  and  trees.  In  the  follow- 
ing genera  there  are  doubtful  cases :  sesculus,  alnus,  amelanchier, 
betula,  caragana,  castanea,  cornus  (C.  florida),  Crataegus,  elae- 
agnus,  prunus,  robinia. 


THE   ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS  —  SHRUBS  293 

Dwarf  buckeye,  jEscuIus  parviflora  {Pavia  tnacrostachya)  * 

Attractive  in  habit,  foliage,  and  flower;   produces  a  large  foliage  mass. 

Alder. 

Several  bushy  species  of  alder  are  good  lawn  or  border  subjects,  particu- 
larly in  wet  places  or  along  streams,  as  A.  viridis*  A.  rugosa*  A.  incana*  and 
others. 

June-berry,  Amelanchier  Canadensis*  and  others. 

Flowers  profusely  in  spring  before  the  leaves  appear;  some  of  them  be- 
come small  trees. 

Azalea,  Azalea  viscosa*  and  A.  nudiflora.* 

Require  partial  shade,  and  a  woodsy  soil. 
Japanese  azalea,  A.  mollis  (or  A.  Sinensis). 

Showy  red  and  yellow  or  orange  flowers;  hardy  north. 

Groundsel  tree,  "white  myrtle,"  Baccharis  halimifolia.* 

Native  on  the  Atlantic  seashore,  but  grows  well  when  planted  inland; 
valuable  for  its  white  fluffy  "bloom"  (pappus)  in  latest  fall;  4-10  ft. 

Spice-bush,  Benzoin  odoriferum  (Lindera  Benzoin)  * 

Very  early-blooming  bush  of  wet  places,  the  yellow,  clustered,  small  flowers 
preceding  the  leaves;   6-10  ft. 

Barberry,  Berberis  vulgaris. 

Common  barberry;  4-6  ft.  The  purple-leaved  form  (var.  purpurea  t)  is 
popular. 

Thunberg's  barberry,  B.  Thunbergii.  J 

One  of  the  best  of  lawn  and  border  shrubs,  with  compact  and  attractive 
habit,  deep  red  autumn  foliage  and  bright  scarlet  berries  in  profusion  in  fall 
and  winter;  excellent  for  low  hedges;  2-4  ft. 

Mahonia,  B.  Aquifolium.*X 

Evergreen;  needs  some  protection  in  exposed  places;    1-3  ft. 
Dwarf  birch,  Betula  pumila.* 

Desirable  for  low  places;  3-10  ft. 
Box,  Buxus  sempervirens. 

An  evergreen  shrub,  useful  for  hedges  and  edgings  in  cities ;  several  varieties, 
some  of  them  very  dwarf.     See  page  220. 

Carolina  allspice,  sweet-scented  shrub,  Calycanthus  Jloridus.* 
Dull  purple,  very  fragrant  flowers;  3-8  ft. 


294  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Siberian  pea-tree,  Caragana  arhorescens.X 

Flowers  pea-like,  yellow,  in  May;   very  hardy;    10-15  feet. 

Small  pea-tree,  C.  pygmcea. 

Very  small,  1-3  ft,  but  sometimes  grafted  on  C.  arborescens. 

Shrubby  pea-tree,  Cfrutescens-X 

Flowers  larger  than  those  of  C.  arborescens ;     3-10  ft. 

Large-flowered  pea-tree,  C.  grandiflora.X 

Larger-flowered  than  the  last,  which  it  resembles ;  4  ft. 

Blue  spirea,  Caryopteris  Mastacanthus. 

Flowers  bright  blue,  in  late  summer  and  fall;  2-4  ft.,  but  is  likely  to  die 
to  ground  in  winter. 

Chinquapin  or  dwarf  chestnut,  Castanea  pumila* 
Becomes  a  small  tree,  but  usually  bushy. 

Ceanothus,  Ceanothus  Americanus.^' 

A  very  small  native  shrub,  desirable  for  dry  places  under  trees;  2-3  ft. 
There  are  many  good  European  garden  forms  of  ceanothus,  but  not  hardy  in 
the  northern  states. 

Button-bush,  Cephalanthus  occidentalis.^ 

Blossoms  in  July  and  August;  desirable  for  water-courses  and  other  low 
places;  4-10  ft. 

Fringe  tree,  Chionanthus  Virgimca.'-^ 

Shrub  as  large  as  lilac,  or  becoming  tree-like,  with  fringe-like  white  flowers 
in  spring. 

White  alder,  Clethra  alnifolia.^ 

A  very  fine,  hardy  shrub,  producing  very  fragrant  flowers  in  July  and 
August;    should  be  better  known;    4-10  ft. 

Bladder  senna,  Colutea  arborescens. 

Pea-like  yellowish  flowers  in  June,  and  big  inflated  pods;   8-12  ft. 

European  osier,  Cornus  alba  (known  also  as  C.  Sibirica  and  C.  Tatarica) . 
Branches  deep  red ;   4-8  ft. ;   the  variegated  form  J  has  leaves  edged  white. 

Bailey's  osier,  C.  Baileyi* 

Probably  the  finest  of  the  native  osiers  for  color  of  twigs  and  foliage; 
5-8  ft. 


THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  SHRUBS  295 

Red-twigged  osier,  C.  stolonifera* 

The  red  twigs  are  very  showy  in  winter;  5  to  8  ft.;  some  bushes  are 
brighter  in  color  than  others. 

Flowering  dogwood,  C.  florida.^ 

Very  showy  tree  or  big  shrub,  desirable  for  borders  of  groups  and  belts.  A 
red-flowered  variety  is  on  the  market. 

Cornelian  Cherry,  C.  Mas. 

Becoming  a  small  tree,  15-20  ft.;  flowers  numerous  in  bunches,  yellow* 
before  the  leaves;   fruit,  cherry-like,  edible,  red. 

Hazel  or  filbert,  Corylus  maxima  var.  purpurea. 

A  well-known  purple-leaved  shrub,  usually  catalogued  as  C.  Avellana 
■purpurea.  The  eastern  American  species  (C  Americana  *  and  C.  rostrata  *)  are 
also  interesting. 

Cotoneaster. 

Several  species  of  cotoneaster  are  suitable  for  cultivation  in  the  middle  and 
southern  latitudes.  They  are  allied  to  Crataegus.  Some  are  evergreen. 
Some  kinds  bear  handsome  persistent  fruits.     Some  are  hardy  North. 

Wild  thorns,  Crataegus  punctata,^  C.  coccinea/^X  C.  Crus-galli,^l  and 
others. 

The  native  thorn  apples  or  hawthorns,  of  numerous  species,  are  amongst 
our  best  large  shrubs  for  planting  and  should  be  much  better  known; 
6-20  ft. 

Japanese  quince,  Cydonia  (or  Pyrus)  Japonica. 

An  old  favorite  blooming  in  earliest  spring,  in  advance  of  the  leaves;  not 
hardy  at  Lansing,  Mich. ;  4-5  ft. 

Maule's  Japanese  quince,  C.  Maulei.X 

Bright  red;   fruit  handsome;   hardier  than  C  Japomca;   1-3  ft. 

Daphne,  Daphne  Mezereum. 

Produces  rose-purple  or  white  flowers  in  abundance  in  earliest  spring  before 
the  leaves  appear.  Should  be  planted  on  the  edges  of  groups;  leaves  decidu- 
ous; 1-4  ft. 

Garland  flower,  D.  Cneorum.X 

Pink  flowers  in  very  early  spring  and  again  in  autumn;  leaves  evergreen; 
1-U  ft. 


296  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Deutzia,  Deutzia  scabra  (or  crenata)  and  varieties. 

Standard  shrubs;  the  variety  "Pride  of  Rochester,"  with  pinkish  flowers, 
is  perhaps  the  best  form  for  the  North ;  4-6  ft.  Of  this  and  the  next  there 
are  forms  with  ornamental  foliage. 

Small  deutzia,  D.  gracilis. 

Very  close  little  bush,  with  pure  white  flowers;  2-3  ft. 

Lemoine's  deutzia,  D.  Lemoinei. 
A  hybrid,  very  desirable;    1-3  ft. 

Weigela,  Diervilla  Japonica  and  other  species. 

Free  bloomers,  very  fine,  in  many  colors,  4-6  ft.;  the  forms  known  as 
candida,%  rosea,X  and  Sieholdii  variegata,%  are  hardy  and  good. 

Leatherwood,  Dirca  palustris.* 

If  well  grown,  the  leatherwood  makes  a  very  neat  plant ;  blossoms  appear 
before  the  leaves,  but  not  showy ;  4-6  ft. 

Russian  olive,  oleaster,  Elceagnus  angustifolia.% 

Foliage  silvery  white;   very  hardy;   becoming  a  small  tree,  15-20  ft. 

Wolf-willow,  E.  argentea.^X 

Large  and  silvery  leaves ;   suckers  badly;  8-12  ft. 

Goumi,  E.  longipes  (sometirhes  called  E.  edulis). 

Attractive  spreading  bush,  with  handsome  edible  cranberry-like  berries; 
5-6  ft. 

Rurning-bush,  Euonymus  atropurpureus* 

Very  attractive  in  fruit;   8-12  ft.,  or  even  becoming  tree-like. 

Several  other  species  are  in  cultivation,  some  of  them  evergreen.  In  the 
North,  success  may  be  expected  with  E.  Europceiis  (sometimes  a  small  tree), 
E.  alatus,  E.  Bungeanus,  E.  latifolius,  and  perhaps  others. 

Exochorda,  Exochorda  grandiflora. 

A  large  and  very  showy  shrub,  producing  a  profusion  of  apple-like  white 
flowers  in  early  spring ;  6-12  ft ;  allied  to  the  spireas. 

Forsythia,  Forsythia  viridissima. 

Blossoms  yellow,  appearing  before  the  leaves;  requires  protection  in  many 
places  North;   6-10  ft. 

Drooping  forsythia,  F.  suspensa. 

Makes  an  attractive  mass  on  a  bank  or  border;   6-12  ft. 


THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  SHRUBS  297 

Dyer's  weed,  Genista  tinctoria.X 

Yellow  pea-like  flowers  in  June;    1-3  ft. 

Silver-bell  tree,  Halesia  tetraptera* 

Bell-shaped  white  flowers  in  May;    8-10  ft. 

Witch  hazel,  Hamamelis  Virginiana* 

Blossoms  in  October  and  November;  unique  and  desirable  if  well  grown; 
8-12  ft. 

Althea,  Rose  of  Sharon,  Hibiscus  Syriacus  [Althcea  frutex) . 

In  many  forms,  purple,  red,  and  white,  and  perhaps  the  best  of  late  summer- 
blooming  shrubs;    8-12  ft. 

Hydrangea,  Hydrangea  paniculata,   var.  grandiflora.X 

One  of  the  best  and  most  showy  small  flowering  shrubs;  4-10  ft. 

Downy  hydrangea,  H.  radiata* 

Attractive  in  both  foliage  and  flower. 
Oak-leaved  hydrangea,  H.  quercifolia.^ 

This  is  especially  valuable  for  its  luxuriant  foliage;  even  if  killed  to  the 
ground  in  winter,  it  is  still  worth  cultivating  for  its  strong  shoots. 

The  greenhouse  hydrangea  {H.  hortensis  in  many  forms)  may  be  used  as  an 
outdoor  subject  in  the  South. 

St.  John's  wort,  Hypericum   Kalmianum*l    H.  prolificumj^  and  H. 
'      Moserianum. 

Small  imdershrubs,  producing  bright  yellow  flowers  in  profusion  in  July 
and  August;    2-4  ft. 

Winter-berry,  Hex  verticillata.'^X 

Produces  showy  red  berries,  that  persist  through  the  winter;  should  be 
massed  in  rather  low  ground ;    flowers  imperfect;   6-8  ft. 

The  evergreen  hollies  are  not  suitable  for  cultivation  in  the  North;  but  in 
the  warmer  latitudes,  the  American  holly  {Ilex  opaca),  English  holly  (/. 
Aquifolium),  and  Japanese  holly  (/.  crenata)  may  be  grown.  There  are  several 
native  species. 

Mountain  laurel,  Kalmia  latifolia* 

One  of  the  best  shrubs  in  cultivation,  evergreen,  5-10  ft.,  or  even  becom- 
ing a  small  tree  south ;  usually  profits  by  partial  shade ;  thrives  in  a  peaty 
or  loamy  rather  loose  soil,  and  said  to  be  averse  to  limestone  and  clay;  ex- 
tensively transferred  from  the  wild  for  landscape  effects  in  large  private 
places;   should  thrive  as  far  north  as  it  grows  wild. 


298  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Kerria,  corchorus,  Kerria  Japonica. 

A  bramble-like  shrub,  producing  attractive  yellow  single  or  double  flowers 
from  July  until  Sej^tember ;  twigs  very  green  in  winter.  There  is  a  varie- 
gated-leaved forin.       Good  for  banks  and  borders;  2-3  ft. 

Sand  myrtle,  Leiophyllum  buxifolium.^ 

Evergreen,  more  or  less  procumbent;  2-3  ft. 

Lespedeza,  Lespedeza  hicolor.X 

Reddish  or  purple  small  flowers  in  late  summer  and  fall ;   4-8  ft. 

Lespedeza,  L.  Sieboldii  {Desmodium  penduliflorum) .% 

Rose-purple  large  flowers  in  fall;  killed  to  the  ground  in  winter,  but  it 
blooms  the  following  year;    4-5  ft. 

Lespedeza,  L.  Japonica  {Desmodium  Japonicum). 

Flowers  white,  later  than  those  of  L.  Sieboldii;   springs  up  from  the  root. 

Privet,  Ligustrum  vulgare,  L.  ovalifoliwn    (L.  Californicum),  and  L. 
Amurense-X 
Much  used  for  low  hedges  and  borders;  4-12  ft. ;  several  other  species. 

Tartarian  honeysuckle,  Lonicera  Tatarica.X 

One  of  the  inost  chaste  and  comely  of  shrubs;  6-10  ft.;  pink-flowered; 
several  varieties. 

Kegel's  honeysuckle,  L.  spinosa  (L.  Alberti).X 
Blooms  a  little  later  than  above,  pink;   2-4  ft. 

Fragrant  honeysuckle,  L.  fragraiitissima. 

Flowers  exceedingly  fragrant,  preceding  leaves ;  2-6  ft. ;  one  of  the  earliest 
things  to  bloom  in  spring. 

There  are  other  upright  honeysuckles,  all  interesting. 

Mock-orange  (Syringa  incorrectly),  Philadelphus  coronarius.X 

In  many  forms  and  much  prized;   6-12  ft. 

Other  species  are  in  cultivation,  bvit  the  garden  nomenclature  is  confused. 
The  forms  known  as  P.  speciosus,  P.  grandiflorus,  and  var.  speciosissimus  t  are 
good;  also  the  species  P.  pubesce?is,'^  P.  Gordonianus*  and  P.  microphyllus* 
the  last  being  dwarf,  with  small  white  very  fragrant  flowers. 

Nine-bark,  Physocarpus  opulifolius  {Spiraea  opulifolia).^ 

A  good  vigorous  hardy  bush,  with  clusters  of  interesting  pods  following  the 
flowers;   the  var.  aureaX  is  one  of  the  best  yellow-leaved  shrubs;  0-10  ft. 


THE    ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  SHRUBS  299 

Andromeda,  Pier  is  Jloribunda.^- 

A  small  ericaceous  evergreen;  should  have  some  protection  from  the  winter 
sun;  for  this  purpose,  it  may  be  planted  on  the  north  side  of  a  clump  of 
trees ;  2-6  ft. 

Shrubby  cinquefoil,  Potentilla  fruticosa.^X 

Foliage  ashy;    flowers  yellow,  in  June;    2-4  ft. 

Sand  cherry,  Prunus  pumila  *  and  P.  Besseyi.^ 

The  sand  cherry  of  sandy  shores  grows  5-8  ft. ;  the  western  sand  cherry 
(P.  Besscyi)  is  more  spreading  and  is  grown  for  its  fruit.  The  European 
dwarf  cherry  {P .  fruticosa)  is  2-4  ft.,  with  white  flowers  in  umbels. 

Flowering  almond,  P.  Japoiiica. 

In  its  double-flowered  form,  familiar  for  its  early  bloom;  3-5  ft;  often 
grafted  on  other  stocks,  which  are  liable  to  sprout  and  become  troublesome. 

Hop-tree,  Ptelea  trifoliata.* 

Very  interesting  when  bearing  its  roundish  winged  fruits;  8-10  ft.,  but 
becoming  larger  and  tree-like. 

Buckthorn,  Rhamnus  cathartica. 

Much  used  for  hedges;   8-12  ft. 
Alpine  buckthorn,  R.  alpina. 

Foliage  attractive;   5-6  ft. 

Rhododendron,    Rhododendron    Catawbiense  *    and    garden    varieties 
(p.  391). 
Hardy  in  well -adapted  locations,  3-8  ft.,  and  higher  in  its  native  regions. 

Great  laurel,  R.  maximum.'^ 

A  fine  species  for  mass  planting,  native  as  far  north  as  southern  Canada. 
Extensively  transplanted  from  the  wild. 

White  kerria,  Rhodotypos  kerrioides. 

White  flowers  in  May  and  blackish  fruit  ;  3-5  ft. 
Smoke-tree  (Fringe- tree  erroneously),  Rhus  Cotinus. 

One  of  the  best  shrubs  for  massing ;  two  colors  are  grown ;  the  billowy 
"bloom,"  holding  late  in  the  season,  is  composed  of  flower  stems  rather 
than  flowers ;  size  of  large  lilac  bushes. 

Dwarf  sumac,  R.  copallina.* 

Attractive  in  foliage,  and  especially  conspicuous  in  autumn  from  the  bril- 
liant red  of  its  leaves;  3-5  ft.,  sometimes  much  taller. 


300 


MANUAL   OF  GARDENING 


Sumac,  smooth  and  hairy,  R.  glabra  *  and  R.  typhina,* 

Useful  for  the  borders  of  large  groups  and  belts.  Thej^  may  be  cut  down  everj 
year  and  allowed  to  sprout  (as  in  Fig.  50).  The  young  tops  are  handsomest. 
R.  glabra  is  the  finer  species  for  this  purpose.  They  usually  grow  10-15  ft. 
tall. 

Osbeck's  sumac,  R.  semialata  var.  Osbeckii. 

Strong  bush,  10-20  ft.,  with  leaf-rachis  strongly  winged,  the  foliage 
pinnately  compound. 

Flowering,  or  fragrant  currant,  Ribes  aureum.^1;. 

Well  known  and  popular,  for  its  sweet-scented  yellow  flowers  in  May;  5- 
8  ft. 

Red-flowering  currant,  R.  sanguineum.'^ 

Flowers  red  and  attractive;  5-6  ft.  R.  Gordonianum,  recommendable,  ia 
a  hybrid  between  R.  sanguineum  and  R.  aureum. 

Rose  acacia,  ^o- 

binia  hispida.^l 

Very    showy    in 

bloom;  8-10 ft. 

Roses,  Rosa,  va- 
rious species. 

Hardy  roses  are 
not    always    desir- 
able for  the  lawn. 
For    general    lawn 
purposes  the  older 
sorts,  single    or 
semi-double,  and  which  do  not  require  high  culture, 
are  to  be  preferred.     It  is  not  intended  to  include 
here  the  common  garden  roses;   see  Chapter  VIII  for 
these.     It  is  much  to  be  desired  that  the  wild  roses 
receive  more  attention  from  planters.      Attention  has 
been  too  exclusively  taken  by  the  highly  improved 
garden  roses. 

Japanese  rose,  Rosa  rugosa.X 

Most  excellent  for  lawn  planting,  as  the  foliage  is 
thick  and  not  attacked  by  insects  (Fig.  263);  white 
and  pink  flowered  forms ;   4-6  ft. 

Wild  swamp  rose,  R.  Carolina.'^ 
5-8  ft. 


Kosa  rugosa 


THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  SHRUBS  301 

Wild  dwarf  rose,  R.  humilis*  (R.  lucida  of  Michigan). 

This  and   other  wild  dwarf   roses,  3-6   ft.,  may   be   useful   in   landscape 
work. 

Say's  Rose,  R.  acicularis  var.  Sayi* 
Excellent  for  lawns ;     4^5  ft. 

Red-leaved  rose,  R.ferruginea  {R.  ruhrifolia).% 
Excellent  foliage ;  flowers  single,  pink ;  5-6  ft. 

Japanese  bramble,  Rubus  cratcegifolius. 

Valuable  for  holding  banks;    spreads  rapidly ;    very  red  in  winter;    3-4  ft. 

Flowering  raspberry,  mulberry  (erroneously),  R.  odoratus* 

Attractive  when  well  grown  and  divided  frequently  to  keep  it  fresh;  there 
is  a  whitish  form;    3-4  ft. 

Japanese  wineberry,  R.  phoenicolasius. 

Attractive  foliage  and  red  hairy  canes;  fruit  edible;  3-5  ft. 

Kilmarnock  willow,  Salix  Caprcea,  var.  pendula. 

A  small  weeping  plant  grafted  on  a  tall  trunk ;   usually  more  curious  than 
ornamental. 

Rosemary  willow,  S.  rosmarinifoliaX  of  nurserymen  {R.  incana  prop- 
erly). 
&-10  ft. 

Shining  willow,  S.  lucida* 

Very  desirable  for  the  edges  of  water;   6-12  ft. 

Long-leaved  willow,  S.  interior* 

Our  narrowest-leaved  native  willow;  useful  for  banks;  liable  to  spread  too 

rapidly;  8-12  ft. 

Fountain  willow,  S.  purpurea. 

Attractive  foliage  and  appearance,  particularly  if  cut  back  now  and  then  to 
secure  new  wood ;   excellent  for  holding  springy  banks;   10-20  ft. 

Pussy  willow,  S.  discolor* 

Attractive  when  massed  at  some  distance  from  the  residence;   10-15  ft. 

Laurel-leaved  willow,  S.  pentandra  (S.  laurifolia  of  cultivators). J 
See  under  Trees,  p.  329. 
Many  of  the  native  willows  might  well  be  cultivated. 


302  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Elders,  Sambucus  pubens  *  and  S.  Canadensis."^ 

The  former,  the  common  "red  elder,"  is  ornamental  both  in  flower  and 
fruit.  S.  Canadensis  is  desirable  for  its  j^rofusion  of  fragrant  flowers  appear- 
ing in  July ;  the  former  is  6-7  ft.  high  and  the  latter  8-10  ft. 

Golden-leaved  elder,  S.  nigra  var.  foliis  aureis,X  and  also  the  cut-leaved 
elder,  are  desirable  forms  of  the  European  species;  5-15  ft. 

Buffalo-berry,  Shepherdia  argentea.'^ 

Silvery  foliage;   attractive  and  edible  berries;   10-15  ft.,  often  tree-like. 

Shepherdia,  S.  Canadensis.'^ 

Spreading  bush,  3-8  ft.,  with  attractive  foliage  and  fruit. 

Early  spirea,  Spiroea  arguta.X 

One  of  the  earliest  bloomers  among  the  spireas;    2-4  ft. 

Three-lobed  spirea,  bridal  wreath,  *S.  Van  Houttei.X 

One  of  the  most  showy  early-flowering  shrubs;  excellent  for  massing 
blooms  a  little  later  than  the  above;    3-6  ft. 

Sorbus-leaved  spirea,  S.  sorbifolia  {Sorbaria  sorbifolia) .% 

Desirable  for  its  late  blooming,  —  late  June  and  early  July ;  4-5  ft. 

Plum-leaved  spirea,  S.  prunifolia. 

Fortune's  spirea,  S.  Japonica  {S.  callosa),^  2  to  4  ft. 

Thunberg's  spirea,  S.  Thunbergii. 

Neat  and  attractive  in  habit ;   useful  for  border-hedges;   3-5  ft. 

St.  Peter's  Wreath,  S.  hypericifolia ;  4-5  ft. 

Round-leaved  spirea,  S.  bracteata.% 
Follows  Van  Houttei ;  3-6  ft. 

Douglas'  spirea,  S.  Douglasii.^ 

Blossoms  late,  —  in  July ;   4-8  ft. 

Hard-hack,  S.  tomentosa.'^ 

Much  like  the  last,  but  less  showy;   3-4  ft. 

Willow-leaved  spirea,  S.  salicifolia.'^X 
Blooms  late;   4-5  ft. 

Bladder-nut,  Staphylea  trifolia.^ 

Well-known  rather  coarse  native  shrub;    6-12  ft. 


THE    ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  SHRUBS 


303 


Colchican  bladder-nut,  S.  Colchica. 
Good  early  flowering  shrub;    6-12  ft. 


264.    A  spirea,  one  of  the  most  serviceable  flowering  shrubs. 

Styrax,  Styrax  Japonica. 

One  of  the  most  graceful  of  flowering  shrubs,  producing  fragrant  flowers  in 
early  summer;  8-10  ft.  or  more. 


304  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Snow-berry,  Symphoricarpos  racemosus.'^X 

Cultivated  for  its  snow-white  berries,  that  hang  in  autumn  and  early  winter; 
3-5  ft. 

Indian  currant,  S.  vulgaris.'^ 

Foliage  delicate;  berries  red;  valuable  for  shady  places  and  against  walls ; 
4-5  ft. 

Common  lilac,  Syringa  vulgaris.X    (The  name  syringa  is  commonly  mis 
applied  to  the  species  of  Philadelphus.) 
The  standard  spring-blooming  shrub  in  the  North;  8-15  ft. ;  many  forma 

Josika  lilac,  S.  Josikcea.X 

Blooming  about  a  week  later  than  S.  vulgaris;  8-10  ft. 

Persian  lilac,  S.  Persica. 

More  spreading  and  open  bush  than  S.  vulgaris;  6-10  ft. 

Japanese  lilac,  S.  Japonica.X 

Blooms  about  one  month  later  than  common  lilac;  15-20  ft. 

Rouen  lilac,  <S.  Chinensis  (or  Rothomagensis) .% 

Blooms  with  the  common  lilac ;  flowers  more  highly  colored  than  those  of 
S.  Persica;  5-12  ft. 

Chinese  lilacs,  S.  oblataX  and  S.  villosa.X 

The  former  10-15  ft.  and  bloo'ming  with  common  lilac;  the  latter  4-6  ft., 
and  blooming  few  days  later. 

Tamarisk,  Tamarix  of  several  species,  particularly  (for  the  North) 
T.  Chinensis,  T.  Africana  (probably  the  garden  forms  under  this 
name  are  all  T.  parviflord),  and  T.  hispida  {T.  Kashgarica). 

All  odd  shrubs  or  small  trees  with  very  fine  foliage,  and  minute  pink  flowers 
in  profusion. 

Common  snowball.  Viburnum  Opulus.'^  X 

The  cultivated  snowball  J  is  a  native  of  the  Old  World ;  but  the  species 
grows  wild  in  this  country  (known  as  High-bush  Cranberry),  J  and  is  worthy  of 
cultivation;  6-10  ft. 

Japanese  snowball,  V.  tomentosum  (catalogued  as  V.  plicatum). 
6-10  ft. 

Wayfaring  tree,  V.  Lantana.X 

Fruit  ornamental;   8-12  ft.,  or  more. 


THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  SHRUBS  305 

Plum-leaved  haw,  V.  prunifolium.^X 
Leaves  smooth  and  glossy ;  8-15  ft. 

Sweet  viburnum  or  sheep-berry,  V.  Lentago* 
Tall  coarse  bush,  or  becoming  a  small  tree. 

Arrow-wood,  V.  dentatum.^ 

Usually  5-8  ft.,  but  becoming  taller. 

Dockmackie,  V.  acerifolium.* 
Maple-like  foliage;    4-5  ft. 

Withe-rod,  lilac  viburnum,  V.  cassinoides.* 
2-5  ft. 
Other  native  and  exotic  viburnums  are  desirable. 

Xanthoceras,  Xanthoceras  sorhifolia. 

Allied  to  the  buckeyes ;   hardy  in  parts  of  New  England ;  8-10  ft. ;   hand- 
some. 

Prickly  ash,  Zanthoxylum  Americanum.* 

Shrubs  for  the  South. 

Many  of  the  shrubs  in  the  preceding  catalogue  are  also  well 
adapted  to  the  southeastern  states.  The  following  brief  list 
includes  some  of  the  most  recommendable  kinds  for  the  region 
south  of  Washington,  although  some  of  them  are  hardy  farther 
North.  The  asterisk  (*)  denotes  that  the  plant  is  native  to 
this  country. 

The  crape  myrtle  {Lager stroemia  Indica)  is  to  the  South 
what  the  lilac  is  to  the  North,  a  standard  dooryard  shrub; 
produces  handsome  red  (or  blush  or  white)  flowers  all  summer; 
8-12  feet. 

Reliable  deciduous  shrubs  for  the  South  are:  althea,  Hibiscus 
Syriacus,  in  many  forms;  Hibiscus  Rosa-Sinensis ;  Azalea 
calendulacea*  mollis,  and  the  Ghent  azalea  {A.  Pontica);  blue 
spirea,  Caryopteris  Mastacanthus;  European  forms  of  ceano- 
thus;  French  mulberry,  Callicarpa  Americana*;  calycanthus*; 
flowering  willow,  Chilopsis  linearis*;  fringe,  Chionanthus  Vir- 


306  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

ginica*;  white  •  alder,  Clethra  alnifolia*;  corchorus,  Kerria 
Japonica;  deutzias,  of  several  kinds;  goumi,  Elceagims  longipes; 
pearl  bush,  Exochorda  grandifiora ;  Japan  quince,  Cijdonia 
Japonica;  golden-bell,  Forsythia  mridissima ;  broom,  Spartium 
junceum  ;  hydrangeas,  including  H.  Otaksa,  grown  under  cover 
in  the  North;  Jasminumnudiflorum;  bush  honeysuckles;  mock 
orange,  Philadelphus  coronarius  and  grandiflorus* ;  pomegran- 
ate; white  kerria,  Rhodotypos  kerrioides;  smoke  tree,  Rhus 
Cotinus ;  rose  locust,  Rohinia  hispida"^;  spireas  of  several  kinds; 
Stiiartia  pentagyna*;  snowberry,  Symphoricarpos  racemosus*; 
lilacs  of  many  kinds;  viburnums  of  several  species,  including 
the  European  and  Japanese  snowballs;  weigelas  of  the  various 
kinds;  chaste-tree,  Vitex  Agnus-Castus;  Thunberg's  barberry; 
red  pepper.  Capsicum  frutescens;  Plumbago  Capensis;  poinsettia. 
A  large  number  of  broad-leaved  evergreen  shrubs  thrive  in 
the  South,  such  as:  fetter  bush,  Andromeda  florihunda*; 
some  of  the  palms,  as  palmettoes*  and  chamserops;  cycas  and 
zamia*  far  South;  Ahelia  grandifiora;  strawberry  tree.  Arbutus 
Unedo;  ardisias  and  aucubas,  both  grown  under  glass  in  the 
North;  azaleas  and  rhododendrons  (not  only  R.  Cataivbiense* 
but  7?.  maximum*  R.  Ponticum,  and  the  garden  forms);  Kalmia 
latifolia'^;  Berberis  Japonica  and  mahonia*;  box;  C  ley  era  Ja- 
ponica; cotoneasters  and  pyracantha;  eleagnus  of  the  types 
grown  under  glass  in  the  North;  gardenias;  euonymas*  ;  hol- 
lies *  ;  anise-tree,  Illicium  anisatum;  cherry  laurels,  Prunus  or 
Laurocerasus  of  several  species;  mock  orange  (of  the  South), 
Prunus  Caroliniana*  useful  for  hedges;  true  laurel  or  bay-tree, 
Laurus  nobilis;  privets  of  several  species;  Citrus  trifoliatay 
specially  desirable  for  hedges;  oleanders;  magnolias*  ;  myrtle, 
Myrtus  communis;  Osmanthus  (Olea)  fragrans,  a  greenhouse 
shrub  North;  Osmanthus  Aquifolium*;  butcher's  broom, 
Ruscus  aculeatus;  phillyreas*;  Pittosporum  Tobira;  shrubby 
yuccas*;  Viburnum  Tinus  and  others;  and  the  camellia  in  many 
forms. 


•9'  ■         •     1 

L 

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Ik 

^^^k'-' 

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K.                             /tki..  N_^    -^i^W 

THE    ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  CLIMBERS  307 


6.   Climbing  Plants 

Vines  do  not  differ  particularly  in  their  culture  from  other 
herbs  and  shrubs,  except  as  they  require  that  supports  be  pro- 
vided; and,  as  they  overtop  other  plants,  they  demand  little 
room  on  the  ground,  and  they  may  therefore  be  grown  in  narrow 
or  unused  spaces  along  fences  and  walls. 

In  respect  to  the  modes  of  climbing,  vines  may  be  thrown 
into  three  groups,  —  those  that  twine  about  the  support;  those 
that  climb  by  means  of  special  organs,  as  tendrils,  roots,  leaf- 
stalks; those  that  neither  twine  nor  have  special  organs  but 
that  scramble  over  the  support,  as  the  climbing  roses  and  the 
brambles.  One  must  recognize  the  mode  of  climbing  before 
undertaking  the  cultivation  of  'dA\y  vine. 

Vines  may  also  be  grouped  into  annuals,  both  tender  (as 
morning-glory)  and  hardy  (as  sweet  pea) ;  ])iennials,  as  adlumia, 
which  are  treated  practically  as  annuals,  being  sown  each  j^ear 
for  bloom  the  next  year;  herbaceous  perennials,  the  tops  dying 
each  fall  down  to  a  persisting  root,  as  cinnamon  vine  and 
madeira  vine;  wood}^  perennials  (shrubs),  the  tops  remaining 
alive,  as  Virginia  creeper,  grape,  and  wistaria. 

There  is  scarcely  a  garden  in  which  chmbing  plants  may  not 
be  used  to  advantage.  Sometimes  it  may  be  to  conceal  obtru- 
sive objects,  again  to  relieve  the  monotony  of  rigid  lines.  They 
may  also  be  used  to  run  over  the  ground  and  to  conceal  its 
nakedness  where  other  plants  could  not  succeed.  The  shrubby 
kinds  are  often  useful  about  the  borders  of  clumps  of  trees  and 
shrubbery,  to  slope  the  foliage  down  to  the  grass,  and  to  soften 
or  erase  lines  in  the  landscape. 

In  the  South  and  in  CaUfomia,  great  use  is  made  of  vines, 
not  only  on  fences  but  on  houses  and  arbors.  In  warm  coun- 
tries, vines  give  character  to  bungalows,  pergolas,  and  other 
individual  forms  of  architecture. 

If  it  is  desired  that  the  vines  climb  high,  the  soil  should  be 


308  MANUAL   OF  GARDENING 

fertile;  but  high  climbing  in  annual  plants  (as  in  sweet  peas) 
may  be  at  the  expense  of  bloom. 

The  use  of  vines  for  screens  and  pillar  decorations  has  in- 
creased in  recent  years  until  now  they  may  be  seen  in  nearly 
all  grounds.  The  tendency  has  been  towards  using  the  hardy 
vines,  of  which  the  ampelopsis,  or  Virginia  creeper,  is  one  of  the 
most  common.  This  is  a  very  rapid  grower,  and  lends  itself  to 
training  more  readily  than  many  others.  The  Japan  ampelopsis 
{A.  tricuspidata  or  Veitchii)  is  a  good  clinging  vine,  growing 
very  rapidly  when  once  established,  and  brilliantly  colored 
after  the  first  fall  frosts.  It  clings  closer  than  the  other,  but  is 
not  so  hardy.  Either  of  these  may  be  grown  from  cuttings  or 
division  of  the  plants. 

Two  recommendable  woody  twiners  of  recent  distribution 
are  the  actinidia  and  the  akebia,  both  from  Japan.  They  are 
perfectly  hardy,  and  are  rapid  growers.  The  former  has  large 
thick  glossy  leaves,  not  affected  by  insects  or  disease,  growing 
thickly  along  the  stem  and  branches,  making  a  perfect  thatch. 
It  blooms  in  June.  The  flowers,  which  are  white  with  a  pur- 
ple center,  are  borne  in  clusters,  followed  by  round  or  longish 
edible  fruits.  The  akebia  has  very  neat-cut  foliage,  quaint 
purple  flowers,  and  often  bears  ornamental  fruit. 

Of  the  tender  vines,  the  nasturtiums  and  ipomeas  and  morn- 
ing-glories are  the  most  common  in  the  North,  while  the  ad- 
lumia,  balloon  vine,  passion  vine,  gourds,  and  others,  are  fre- 
quently used.  One  of  the  best  of  recent  introduction  is  the 
annual  hop,  especially  the  variegated  variety.  This  is  a  very 
rapid-growing  vine,  seeding  itself  each  year,  and  needing  little 
care.  The  climbing  geraniums  {Pelargonium  peltatum  and  its 
derivatives)  are  much  used  in  California.  All  the  tender  vines 
should  be  planted  after  danger  of  frost  is  past. 

So  many  good  vines  are  now  on  the  market  that  one  may 
grow  a  wide  variety  for  many  uses.  The  home  gardener  should 
keep  his  eyes  open  for  the  wild  vines  of  his  neighborhood  and 


THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  CLIMBERS  309 

add  the  best  of  them  to  his  collection.  Most  of  these  natives 
are  worthy  of  cultivation.  Even  the  poison  ivy  makes  a  very 
satisfactory  cover  for  rough  and  inaccessible  places  in  the  wild, 
and  its  autumn  color  is  very  attractive;  but  of  course  its  culti- 
vation cannot  be  recommended. 

Vines  that  cling  closely  to  walls  of  buildings  are  Virginia 
creeper  (one  form  does  not  cling  well),  Boston  or  Japanese  ivy 
(Ampelopsis  tricuspidata;  also  A.  Lowii,  with  smaller  foliage), 
English  ivy,  euonymus  (E.  radicans  and  the  var.  variegata),  and 
Ficus  repens  far  south;  others  that  cling  less  closely  are 
trumpet  creeper,  and  climbing  hydrangea  (Schizophragma  hy- 
drangeoides) . 

Vines  for  trailing,  or  covering  the  ground,  are  periwinkle 
(Vinca),  herniaria,  moneywort  (Lysimachia  nummularia) , 
ground-ivy  (Nepeta  Glechoma),  Rosa  Wichuraiana,  species  of 
native  greenbrier  or  smilax  (not  the  so-called  smilax  of  florists), 
Rubus  laciniatus,  dewberries,  and  also  others  that  usually  are  not 
classed  as  vines.  In  the  South,  Japanese  honeysuckle  and 
Cherokee  rose  perform  this  function  extensively.  In  California, 
species  of  mesembryanthemum  (herbaceous)  are  extensively 
used  as  ground  covers  on  banks.     Page  86. 

For  quickly  covering  brush  and  rough  places,  the  many  kinds 
of  gourds  may  be  used;  also  pumpkins  and  squashes,  water- 
melons, Cucumisfoetidissima,  wild  cucumbers  (Echinocystis  lobata 
and  Sicyos  angulata),  nasturtiums,  and  other  vigorous  annuals. 
Many  of  the  woody  perennials  may  be  used  for  such  purposes, 
but  usually  these  places  are  only  temporary. 

For  arbors,  strong  woody  vines  are  desired.  Grapes  are  ex- 
cellent; in  the  South  the  muscadine  and  scuppernong  grapes  are 
adaptable  to  this  purpose  (Plate  XV).  Actinidia  and  wistaria 
are  also  used.  Akebia,  dutchman's  pipe,  trumpet  creeper, 
clematis,  honeysuckles,  may  be  suggested.  Roses  are  much 
in  warm  climates. 

For  covering  porches,  the  standard  vine  in  the  North  is  Vir- 


310  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

ginia  creeper.  Grapes  are  admirable,  particularly  some  of  thft 
wild  ones.  Japan  honeysuckle  is  much  used;  and  it  has  the 
advantage  of  holding  its  foliage  well  into  the  winter,  or  even 
all  winter  southward.  Actinidia,  akebia,  wistaria,  roses,  dutch- 
man's  pipe,  and  clematis  are  to  be  recommended;  the  large- 
flowered  clematises,  however,  are  more  valuable  for  their  bloom 
than  for  their  foliage  (C  paniculata,  and  the  native  species  are 
better  for  covering  porches). 

The  annual  vines  are  mostly  used  as  flower-garden  subjects, 
as  the  sweet  pea,  morning-glories,  mina,  moonflowers,  cypress 
vine,  nasturtiums,  cobea,  scarlet  runner.  Several  species  of 
convolvulus,  closely  allied  to  the  common  morning-glory,  have 
now  enriched  our  lists.  For  baskets  and  vases  the  maurandia 
and  the  different  kinds  of  thunbergias  are  excellent. 

The  moonflowxrs  are  very  popular  in  the  South,  where  the 
seasons  are  long  enough  to  allow  them  to  develop  to  perfection. 
In  the  North  they  must  be  started  early  (it  is  a  good  plan  to 
soak  or  notch  the  seeds)  and  be  given  a  warm  exposure  and  good 
soil  (see  in  Chap.  VIII). 

In  the  f  oho  wing  lists,  the  plants  native  to  the  United  States 
or  Canada  are  marked  by  an  asterisk  (*). 

Annual  herbaceous  climbers. 
(Grown  each  year  from  seed.) 

a.    Tendril-climbers 
Adlumia  (biennial).* 
Balloon  Vine  {Cardiospermum).'^ 
Cobea. 
Gourds. 

Nasturtiums  (Tropceolum). 
Canary-bird  Flower  {Tropceolum  peregrinum). 
Sweet  pea  (Fig.  265). 
Wild  cucumber.* 
Maurandia. 


THE   ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS — CLIMBERS 


311 


Gourds  or  gourd-like  plants,  as,  Coccinia  Indica;   Cucumis  of  several 

interesting  species,  as  C.  erinaceus,  grossularicBfonnis,  odoralissimus; 

dipper  or  bottle  gourd  (Lagenaria) ; 

vegetable  sponge,  dish-cloth  gourd, 

rag  gourd   {Luffa) ;    balsam  apple, 

balsam    pear    {Momordica) ;    snake 

gourd  {Trichosanthes)]   bryonopsis; 

Abobra  viridiflora. 
All  the  above  except  sweet  pea  are 

quickly  cut  down  by  frost. 

h.    Twiners 
Beans,  Flowering. 
Cypress  vine. 

Dolichos  Lablab,  and  others. 
Hop,  Japanese. 
Ipomoea  Quamoclit  (cypress  vine)  and 

others. 
Moonflower,  several  species. 
Morning-glory. 
Mina  lobata. 
Thunbergia. 
Mikania  scandens.* 

Butterfly  pea,  Centrosema  Virginiana.'^ 
Scarlet  runner,  Phaseolus  multiflorus  (perennial  South). 
Velvet  or  banana  bean,  Mucuna  pruriens  var.  utilis  (for  the  South). 


Sweet  pea. 


Perennial  herbaceous  climbers. 

(The  tops  dying  down  in  fall,  but  the  root  hving  over  winter  and 
sending  up  a  new  top.) 

a.    Tendril-climbers  or  root-climbers 

Everlasting  pea,  Lathyrus  latifolius. 

Clematis  of  various  species,  as  C.  aromatica,  Davidinna,  heracleoe/olia 
(C.  tubulosa),  are  more  or  less  climbing.  Most  of  the  clematises 
are  shrubs. 


312 


MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 


May-pop,  Passiflora  incarnata.* 
Not  reliable  north  of  Virginia. 


266.   Clematis  Henryi.     One-third  natural  size. 

Wild  Gourd,  Cucurhita  foetidissima  (Cucumis  perennius).* 
Excellent  strong  rugged  vine  for  covering  piles  on  the  ground. 


THE    ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  CLIMBERS  313 

Mexican  rose,  mountain  rose,  Antigonon  leptopus. 

Root  tuberous;    a  rampant   grower,  with   pink   bloom;    outdoors   South, 
and  a  conservatory  plant  North. 

Kenilworth  ivy,  Linaria  Cymhalaria. 

A  very  graceful  little  perennial  vine,  re-sowing  itself  even  where  not  hardy ; 
favorite  for  baskets. 

6.   Herbaceous  ticiners 
Hop,  Humulus  Lwpulus.'^ 

Produces  the  hops  of  commerce,  but  should   be  in  common  use  as  an  orna- 
mental plant, 

Chinese  yam,  cinnamon  vine,  Dioscorea  divaricata  {D.  Batatas). 

Climbs  high,  but  does  not  produce  as  much  foliage  as  some  other  vines. 

Wild  yam,  D.  villosa.^ 

Smaller  than  the  preceding;    otherwise  fully  as  good. 

Ground-nut,  Apios  tuberosa.^ 

A  bean-like  vine,  producing  many  chocolate-brown  flowers  in  August  and 
September. 

Scarlet  runner  and  White  Dutch  runner  beans,  Phaseolus  midtijiorus. 

Perennial  in  warm  countries;  annual  in  the  North. 

Moonflowers,  Ipomcea,  various  species. 

Some  are  perennials  far  South,  but  annual  North. 

Hardy  moonflower,  Ipomoea  pandurata* 

A  weed  where  it  grows  wild,  but  an  excellent  vine  for  some  purposes. 

Wild  morning-glory,  Rutland  beauty.  Convolvulus  Sepium*  and  Cali- 
fornia rose,  C.  Japonicus. 

The  former,  white  and  pink,  is  common  in  swales.     The  latter,  in  double 
or  semi-double  form,  is  often  run  wild. 

Madeira  vine,  mignonette  vine,  BoussingauUia  baselloides. 

Root  a  large,  tough,  irregular  tuber. 

Mikania,  climbing  hempweed,  Mikania  scandens* 
A  good  compositous  twiner,  inhabiting  moist  lands. 


314  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

Woody  perennial  climbers. 

(Climbing  shrubs,  the  tops  not  dying  down  in  fall  except  in  climates 
in  which  they  are  not  hardy.) 

a.    Tendril-climbers,  root-climbers,  scramblers,  and  trailers 

Virginia  creeper,  Ampelopsis  quinquefolia.^ 

The  best  vine  for  covering  buildings  in  the  colder  climates.  Plants  should 
be  selected  from  vines  of  known  habit,  as  some  individuals  cling  much  better 
than  others.  Var.  hirsuta,*  strongly  clinging,  is  recommended  by  the  experi- 
mental station  at  Ottawa,  Canada.  Var.  Engebnanni*  has  small  and  neat 
foliage. 

Japanese  ivy,  Boston  ivy,  A.  tricuspidata  (A.  Veitchii). 

Handsomer  than  the  Virginia  creeper,  and  clings  closer,  but  is  often  injured 
by  winter  in  exposed, places,  especially  when  j^oung;  in  northern  regions,  tops 
should  be  protected  for  first  year  or  two. 

Variegated  i\y,  A.  heterophylla  var.  elega7is  {Cissus  variegata). 

Handsome  delicate  hardy  grape-like  vines  with  mostly  three-lobed  blotched 
leaves  and  bluish  berries. 

Garden  clematis,  Clematis  of  various  species  and  varieties. 

Plants  of  robust  and  attractive  habit,  and  gorgeous  blooms;  many  garden 
forms.  C.  Jackmani,  and  its  varieties,  is  one  of  the  best.  C.  Henryi  (Fig. 
266)  is  excellent  for  white  flowers.     Clematises  bloom  in  July  and  August. 

Wild  clematis,  C.  Virgim'ana.^ 

Very  attractive  for  arbors  and  for  covering  rude  objects.  The  pistillate 
plants  bear  curious  woolly  balls  of  fruit. 

Wild  clematis,  C.  verticiUaris.^ 

Less  vigorous  grower  than  the  last,  but  excellent. 

Japanese  clematis,  C.  paniculata. 

The  best  late-blooming  woody  vine,  producing  enormous  masses  of  white 
flowers  in  late  summer  and  early  fall. 

Trumpet  creeper,  Tecoma  radicans.'^ 

One  of  the  best  of  all  free-flowering  shrubs;  climbs  by  means  of  roots; 
flowers  very  large,  orange-scarlet. 

Chinese  trumpet  creeper,  T.  grandiflora  (Bignonia  grandiflora). 
Flowers  orange-red;  sometimes  scarcely  climbing. 


i 


THE    ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  CLIMBERS  315 

Bignonia,  Bignonia  capreolata.^ 

A  good  strong  evergreen  vine,  but  often  a  nuisance  in  fields  in  the  South. 

Frost  grape,  Vitis  cordifolia.* 

One  of  the  finest  of  all  vines.  It  is  a  very  tall  grower,  producing  thick, 
heavy,  dark  leaves.  Its  foliage  often  reminds  one  of  that  of  the  moon-seed. 
Does  not  grow  readily  from  cuttings. 

Summer  and  river-bank  grapes,  V.  bicolor,"^'  and  V.  vulpina  {riparia).'^ 

The  common  wild  grapes  of  the  Northern  states. 
Muscadine,  scuppernong,  V.  rotundifolia* 

Much  used  for  arbors  in  the  Southern  states  (Plate  XV). 
Ivy,  Hedera  Helix. 

The  European  ivy  does  not  endure  the  bright  sun  of  our  winter;  on  the 
north  side  of  a  building  it  often  does  well;  the  best  of  vines  for  covering 
buildings,  where  it  succeeds;  hardy  in  favorable  localities  as  far  north  as 
southern  Ontario;   many  forms. 

Greenbrier,  Smilax  rotundifolia  *  and  S.  hispida* 

Unique  for  the  covering  of  small  arbors  and  summer-houses. 

Euonymus,  Euonymus  radicans. 

A  very  close-clinging  root-climber,  excellent  for  low  walls;  evergreen;  the 
variegated  variety  is  good. 

Climbing  fig,  Ficus  repens. 

Used  in  greenhouses  North,  but  is  hardy  far  South. 

Matrimony  vine,  boxthorn,  Lycium  Chinense. 

Flowering  all  summer;  flowers  rose-pink  and  buff,  axillary,  star-like,  suc- 
ceeded by  scarlet  berries  in  the  fall ;  stems  prostrate,  or  scrambling ;  an  old- 
fashioned  vine  on  porches. 

Bitter-sweet,  Solanum  Dulcamara. 

A  common  scrambling  or  semi-twining  vine  along  roadsides,  with  brilliant 
red  poisonous  berries ;    top  dies  down  or  nearly  so. 

Periwinkles,  Vinca  minor  and  V.  major. 

The  former  is  the  familiar  trailing  evergreen  myrtle,  with  blue  flowers  in 
early  spring;  in  its  variegated  form  the  latter  is  much  \ised  for  hanging 
baskets  and  vases. 


316  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Climbing  hydrangea,  Schizophragma  hydrangeoides. 

Clings  to  walls  by  rootlets,  producing  white  flowers  in  midsummer. 

Passion-flower,  species  of  Passiflora  and  Tacsonia. 
Used  in  the  South  and  in  California. 

h.   Woody  twiners 
Actinidia,  Actinidia  arguta. 

Very  strong  grower,  with  beautiful  thick  foliage  that  is  not  attacked  by 
insects  or  fungi;    one  of  the  best  vines  for  arbors. 

Akebia,  Akebia  quinata. 

Very  handsome  and  odd  Japanese  vine;  a  strong  grower,  and  worthy 
general  planting. 

Honeysuckles,  woodbine,  Lonicera  of  many  kinds. 

Japanese  honeysuckle,  L.  Halliana  (a  form  of  L.  Japonica). 

10-20  ft. ;  flowers,  white  and  buff,  fragrant  mainly  in  spring  and  fall; 
leaves  small,  evergreen;  stems  prostrate  and  rooting,  or  twining  and  climb- 
ing. Trellises,  or  for  covering  rocks  and  bare  places;  extensively  run  wild  in 
the  South.  Var.  aurea  reticulata  is  similar  to  the  type,  but  with  handsome 
golden  appearance. 

Belgian  Honeysuckle,  L.  Periclymenum  var.  Belgica. 

6-10  ft.;  monthly;  flowers  in  clusters,  rosy  red,  buff  within;  makes  a 
large,  rounded  bush. 

Coral  or  trumpet  honeysuckle,  L.  sempervirens.^ 

6-15  ft.;  June;  scattering  scarlet  flowers  through  the  summer;  with 
no  support  makes  a  large  rounded  bush;  for  trellises,  fences,  or  a  hedge;  it  is 
one  of  the  list  of  hardy  trees  and  shrubs  recommended  for  Canada  by  the  Ex- 
periment Station  at  Ottawa. 

Honeysuckle,  L.  Caprifolium,  with  cup-like  connate  leaves. 

Good  native  climbing  honeysuckles  are  L.  flava*  Sullivanti,*  hirsuta* 
dioica*  and  Douglasi* 

Wistaria,  Wistaria  Sinensis  and  W.  speciosa.^ 

The  Chinese  species,  Sinensis,  is  a  superb  plant;  flowers  blue-purple;  there 
is  a  white-flowered  variety. 

Japanese  wistaria,  W.  multijuga. 

Flowers  smaller  and  later  than  the  Chinese,  in  looser  racemes. 


THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  CLIMBERS  317 

Dutchman's  pipe,  Aristolochia  rnacrophylla  {A.  Sipho)."^ 

A  robust  grower,  possessing  enormous  leaves.     Useful  for  covering  verandas 
and  arbors. 

Wax-work  or  false  bitter-sweet,  Celastrus  scamdens* 
Very  ornamental  in  fruit;    flowers  imperfect. 

Japanese  celastrus,  C.  orbiculatus  {C.  articulatus  of  the  trade). 

C.  articulatus  and  C.  scandens  are  in  the  list  of  100  trees  and  shrubs  recom- 
mended by  the  Experiment  Station  at  Ottawa  for  Canada. 

Moonseed,  Menispennum  Canadense.* 

A  small  but  very  attractive  twiner,  useful  for  thickets  and  small  arbors. 

Bokhara  climbing  polygonum,  Polygonum  Baldschuanicum. 

Hardy  North,  although  the  j^oung  growth  may  be  killed ;  flowers  numerous, 
minute,  whitish;  interesting,  but  does  not  make  a  heavy  cover. 

Kudzu  vine,  Pueraria  Thunbergiana  {Dolichos  Japonicus) . 

Makes  very  long  growths  from  a  tuberous  root;    shrubby  South,  but  dies 
to  the  ground  in  the  North. 

Silk  vine,  Periploca  Grceca. 

Purplish  flowers  in  axillary  clusters;    long,  narrow,  shining  leaves;    rapid 
growing. 

Potato  vine,  Solanum  jasminoides. 

A  good  evergreen  vine  South,  particularly  the  var.  grandiflorum. 

Yellow  jasmine,  Gelsemium  sempervirens.* 

A  good  native  evergreen  vine  for  the  South,  with  fragrant  yellow  flowers. 

Malayan  jasmine,  Trachelospermum  (or  Rhynchospermum)  jasminoides. 
A  good  evergreen  vine  for  the  South  and  in  California. 

Climbing  asparagus,  Asparagus  plumosus. 

Popular  as  an  outdoor  vine  far  South  and  in  California. 

Jasmines,  Jasminum  of  several  species. 

The  best  known  in  gardens  are  J.  nudiflorum,  yellow  in  earliest  spring, 
J.  officinale,  the  jessamine  of  poetry,  with  white  flowers,  and  J.  Sambac,  the 
Arabian  jasmine  (and  related  species)  with  white  flowers  and  unbranched 
leaves;  these  are  not  hardy  without  much  protection  north  of  Washington 
or  Philadelphia,  and  J.  Sambac  only  far  South. 


318 


MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 


Bougainvillea,  Bougainvilloea  glabra  and  B.  spectabilis. 

The  magenta-flowered  variety,  sometimes  seen  in  conservatories  in  the 
North,  is  a  popular  outdoor  vine  in  the  South  and  is  profusely  used  in  south- 
ern California.     The  red-flowered  form  is  less  seen,  but  is  preferable  in  color. 

Wire-vine  (polygonum  of  florists),  Muehlenbeckia  complexa. 

Abundantly  used  on  buildings  and  chimneys  in  southern  California. 


Climbing  roses. 

The  roses  do  not  twine  nor  possess  any  special  climbing  organs; 

therefore  they  must  be  provided  with  a.  trellis  or  woven-wire 

fence.  Some  of  the 
roses  classed  as  climb- 
ing are  such  as  only 
need  good  support,  Fig. 
267.  For  culture  of 
roseSjSee  Chapter  VIII. 
The  most  popular 
chmbing  or  pillar  rose 
at  present  is  Crimson 
Rambler,  but  while  it 
makes  a  great  display 
of  flowers,  it  is  not 
the  best  climbing  rose. 
Probably  the  best  of 
the  real  climbing  roses 
for  this  country, 
bloom,  foliage,  and 
habit  all  considered, 
are  the  derivatives  of 
the  native  prairie  rose, 
Rosa  setigera  (native 
as  far  north  as  On- 
tario and  Wisconsin). 

Baltimore  Belle  and  Queen  of  the  Prairie  belong  to  this  class. 


267.   Climbing  rose,  Jules  Margottin. 


THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  — TREES  319 

The  climbing  polyantha  roses  (hybrids  of  Rosa  multiflora 
and  other  species)  include  the  class  of  ''rambler"  roses  that  has 
now  come  to  be  large,  including  not  only  the  Crimson  Ram- 
bler, but  forms  of  other  colors,  single  and  semi-double,  and 
various  climbing  habits;  a  very  valuable  and  hardy  class  of 
roses,  particularly  for  trellises. 

The  Memorial  rose  {R.  Wichuraiana)  is  a  trailing,  half-ever- 
green, white-flowered  species,  very  useful  for  covering  banks  and 
rocks.  Derivatives  of  this  species  of  many  kinds  are  now  avail- 
able, and  are  valuable. 

The  Ayrshire  roses  (R.  arvensis  var.  capreolata)  are  profuse 
but  rather  slender  growers,  hardy  North,  bearing  double  white 
or  pink  flowers. 

The  Cherokee  rose  (R.  Icevigata  or  R.  Sinica)  is  extensively 
naturalized  in  the  South,  and  much  prized  for  its  large  white 
bloom  and  shining  foliage;    not  hardy  in  the  North. 

The  Banksia  rose  {R.  Banksice)  is  a  strong  climbing  rose  for 
the  South  and  California  with  yellow  or  white  flowers  in 
clusters.  A  larger-flowered  form  {R.  Fortuneana)  is  a  hybrid  of 
this  and  the  Cherokee  rose. 

The  climbing  tea  and  noisette  roses,  forms  of  R.  Chinensis  and 
R.  Noisettiana,  are  useful  in  the  open  in  the  South. 

7.  Trees  for  Lawns  and  Streets 

A  single  tree  may  give  character  to  an  entire  home  property; 
and  a  place  of  any  size  that  does  not  have  at  least  one  good  tree 
usually  lacks  any  dominating  landscape  note. 

Likewise,  a  street  that  is  devoid  of  good  trees  cannot  be  the 
best  residential  section;  and  a  park  that  lacks  welI-gro^vn  trees 
is  either  immature  or  barren. 

Although  the  list  of  good  and  hardy  lawn  and  street  trees  is 
rather  extensive,  the  number  of  kinds  generally  planted  and 
recognized  is  small.  Since  most  home  places  can  have  but  few 
trees,  and  since  they  require  so  many  years  to  mature,  it  is 


320  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

natural  that  the  home-maker  should  hesitate  about  experiment' 
ing,  or  trying  kinds  that  he  does  not  himself  know.  So  the  home- 
maker  in  the  North  plants  maples,  elms,  and  a  white  birch,  and 
in  the  South  a  magnolia  and  China-berry.  Yet  there  are  num- 
bers of  trees  as  useful  as  these,  the  planting  of  which  might  give 
our  premises  and  streets  a  much  richer  expression. 

It  is  much  to  be  desired  that  some  of  the  trees  with  '^ strong" 
and  rugged  characters  be  introduced  into  the  larger  grounds; 
such,  for  example,  as  the  hickories  and  oaks.  These  may  often 
transplant  with  difficulty,  but  the  effort  to  secure  them  is  worth 
the  expenditure.  Good  trees  of  oaks,  and  others  supposed  to  be 
difficult  to  transplant,  may  now  be  had  of  the  leading  nursery- 
men. The  pin  oak  {Quercus  palustris)  is  one  of  the  best  street 
trees  and  is  now  largely  planted. 

It  is  at  least  possible  to  introduce  a  variety  of  trees  into  a  city 
or  village,  by  devoting  one  street  or  a  series  of  blocks  to  a  single 
kind  of  tree, — one  street  being  known  by  its  lindens,  one  by  its 
plane-trees,  one  by  its  oaks,  one  by  its  hickories,  one  by  its  native 
birches,  beech,  coffee-tree,  sassafras,  gum  or  liquidambar,  tulip 
tree,  and  the  like.  There  is  every  reason  why  a  city,  particu- 
larly a  small  city  or  a  village,  should  become  to  some  extent  an 
artistic  expression  of  its  natural  region. 

The  home-maker  is  fortunate  if  his  area  already  possesses 
well-grown  large  trees.  It  may  even  be  desirable  to  place  the 
residence  with  reference  to  such  trees  (Plate  VI) ;  and  the  plan- 
ning of  the  grounds  should  accept  them  as  fixed  points  to  which 
to  work.  The  operator  will  take  every  care  to  preserve  and 
safeguard  sufficient  of  the  standing  trees  to  give  the  place  singu- 
larity and  character. 

The  care  of  the  tree  should  include  not  only  the  protecting  of 
it  from  enemies  and  accidents,  but  also  the  maintaining  of  its 
characteristic  features.  •  For  example,  the  natural  rough  bark 
should  be  maintained  against  the  raids  of  tree-scrapers;  and 
the  grading  should  not  be  allowed  to  disguise  the  natural  bulge 


THE   ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS  —  TREES  321 

of  the  tree  at  the  base,  for  a  tree  that  is  covered  a  foot  or  two  above 
the  natural  line  is  not  only  in  danger  of  being  killed,  but  it 
looks  like  a  post. 

The  best  shade  trees  are  usually  those  that  are  native  to  the 
particular  region,  since  they  are  hardy  and  adapted  to  the  soil 
and  other  conditions.  Elms,  maples,  basswoods,  and  the  Hke 
are  nearly  always  reliable.  In  regions  in  which  there  are  seri- 
ous insect  enemies  or  fungous  diseases,  the  trees  that  are  most 
likely  to  be  attacked  may  be  omitted.  For  instance,  in  parts  of 
the  East  the  chestnut  bark-disease  is  a  very  great  menace; 
and  it  is  a  good  plan  in  such  places  to  plant  other  trees  than 
chestnuts. 

A  good  shade  tree  is  one  that  has  a  heavy  foliage  and  dense 
head,  and  that  is  not  commonly  attacked  by  repelling  insects 
and  diseases.  Trees  for  shade  should  ordinarily  be  given  suffi- 
cient room  that  they  may  develop  into  full  size  and  symmetrical 
heads.  Trees  may  be  planted  as  close  as  10  or  15  feet  apart  for 
temporary  effect ;  but  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  crowd  they  should 
be  thinned,  so  that  they  develop  their  full  characteristics  as 
trees. 

Trees  may  be  planted  in  fall  or  spring.  Fall  is  desirable, 
except  for  the  extreme  North,  if  the  land  is  well  drained  and  pre- 
pared and  if  the  trees  may  be  got  in  early;  but  under  usual  con- 
ditions, spring  planting  is  safer,  if  the  stock  has  been  wintered 
well  (see  discussion  under  Shrubs,  p.  290).  Planting  and 
pruning  are  discussed  on  pp.  124  and  139. 

If  one  desires  trees  with  conspicuous  bloom,  they  should  be 
found  among  the  magnolias,  tulip  trees,  koelreuteria,  catalpas, 
chestnuts,  horse-chestnut  and  buckeyes,  cladrastis,  black  or 
yellow  locust,  wild  black  cherry,  and  less  conspicuously  in  the 
lindens;  and  also  in  such  half-trees  or  big  shrubs  as  cercis, 
cytisus,  flowering  dogwood,  double-flowered  and  other  forms 
of  apples,  crab-apples,  cherries,  plums,  peaches,  hawthorn  or 
Crataegus,  amelanchier,  mountain  ash. 


322  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

Among  drooping  or  weeping  trees  the  best  may  be  found  in 
the  willows  {Salix  Bahylonica  and  others),  maples  (Wier's), 
birch,  mulberry,  beech,  ash,  elm,  cherry,  poplar,  mountain  ash. 

Purple-leaved  varieties  occur  in  the  beech,  maple,  elm,  oak, 
birch,  and  others. 

Yellow-leaved  and  tricolors  occur  in  the  maple,  oak,  poplar, 
elm,  beech,  and  other  species. 

Cut-leaved  forms  are  found  in  birch,  beech,  maple,  alder,  oak, 
basswood,  and  others. 

List  of  hardy  deciduous  trees  for  the  North. 

(The  genera  are  arranged  alphabetically.  Natives  are  marked 
by*;  good  species  for  shade  trees  by  t ;  those  recommended  by 
the  Experiment  Station  at  Ottawa,  Ontario,  by  {.) 

In  a  number  of  the  genera,  the  plants  may  be  shrubby  rather 
than  arboreus  in  some  regions  (see  the  Shrub  list),  as  in  acer 
(A.  Ginnala,  A.  spicatum),  sesculus,  betula  (B.  pumila),  car- 
pinus,  castanea  (C.  pumila),  catalpa  (C.  ovata),  cercis,  magnolia 
{M.  glauca  particularly),  ostrya,  prunus,  pyrus,  salix,  sorbus. 

Norway  maple,  Acer  platanoides.-\X 

One  of  the  finest  medium-sized  trees  for  single  lawn  specimens;  there  are 
several  horticultural  varieties.  Var.  SchwedleriX  is  one  of  the  best  of  purple- 
leaved  trees.  The  Norway  maple  droops  too  much  and  is  too  low-headed  for 
roadside  planting. 

Black  sugar  maple,  A.  nigrum.^-f 

Darker  and  softer  in  aspect  than  the  ordinary  sugar  maple. 

Sugar  maple,  A.  saccharum.^-\l 

This  and  the  last  are  among  the  very  best  roadside  trees. 

Silver  maple,  A.  saccharinum  (A.  dasycarpum)  *'f 

Desirable  for  water-courses  and  for  grouping;  succeeds  on  both  wet  and 
dry  lands. 

Wier's  cut-leaved  silver  maple,  A.  saccharinum  var.  Wieri.'W 
Light  and  graceful;    especially  desirable  for  pleasure  grounds. 


THE   ORyAMENTAL  PLANTS — TREES  323 

Red,  soft,  or  swamp  maple,  A.  ruhrum.'^ 

Valuable  for  its  spring  and  autumn  colors,  and  for  variety  in  grouping. 

Sycamore  maple,  A.  Pseudo-platanus. 

A  slow  grower,  to  be  used  mostly  as  single  specimens.     Several  horticul- 
tural varieties. 

English  maple,  A .  campestre. 

A  good  medium-sized  tree  of  slow  growth,  not  hardy  on  our  northern 
borders;  see  under  Shrubs  (p.  291). 

Japan  maple,  A.  palmatum  {A.  polymorphum) . 

In  many  forms,  useful  for  small  lawn  specimens;  does  not  grow  above 
10-20  ft. 

Siberian  maple,  A.  Ginnala.X 

Attractive  as  a  lawn  specimen  when  grown  as  a  bush;   the  autumn  color 
is  very  bright ;  small  tree  or  big  shrub. 

Mountain  maple,  A.  spicatu?n.* 
Very  bright  in  autumn. 

Box-elder,  Acer  Negundo  (Negundo  aceroides  or  fraxinifolium) .*"[ 

Very  hardy  and  rapid  growing;    much  used  in  the  West  as  a  windbreak, 
but  not  strong  in  ornamental  features. 

Horse  chestnut,  Msculus  Hippocastanum.-\X 

Useful  for  single  specimens  and  roadsides;    many  forms. 

Buckeye,  ^.  octandra  {M.flava).'^X 
Ohio  buckeye,  ^.  glabra."^ 
Red  buckeye,  ^.  carnea  {M.  ruhicunda). 
Ailanthus,  Ailanthus  glandulosa. 

A  rapid  grower,  with  large  pinnate  leaves;    the  staminate  plant  possesses 

a  disagreeable  odor  when  it  flowers;   suckers  badly;  most  useful  as  a  shrub; 

see  the  same  under  Shrubs  (also  Fig.  50). 

Alder,  Alnus  glutinosa. 

The  var.  imperialist  is  one  of  the  best  cut-leaved  small  trees. 

European  birch,  Betida  alba. 

Cut-leaved  weeping  birch,  B.  alba  var.  laciniata  pendula.% 

American  white  birch,  B.  populifolia* 

Paper,  or  canoe  birch,  B.  papyrifera.* 


324  MANUAL   OF   GARDENIiiG 

Cherry  birch,  B.  lenta.'^ 

Well-grown  specimens  resemble  the  sweet  cherry ;  both  this  and  the  yelloM 
birch  {B.  lutea*)  make  attractive  light-leaved  trees ;  they  are  not  appreciated. 

Hornbeam  or  blue  beech,  Carpinus  Americana.'^ 
Chestnut,  Castanea  sativa-\  and  C.  Americana*-\ 
Showy  catalpa,  Catalpa  spectosa.fj 

Very  dark,  soft-foliaged  tree  of  small  to  medium  size;    showy  in  flower; 
for  northern  regions  should  be  raised  from  northern-grown  seed. 

Smaller  catalpa,  C.  bignonioides.'f 

Less  showy  than  the  last,  blooming  a  week  or  two  later  ;  less  hardy. 

Japanese  catalpa,  C.  ovata  {C.  K(Empferi).% 

In  northern  sections  often  remains  practically  a  bush. 

Nettle-tree,  Celtis  occidentalis.'^ 
Katsura-tree,  Cercidiphyllum  Japonicum.X 

A  small  or  medium-sized  tree  of  very  attractive  foliage  and  habit. 

Red-bud,  or  Judas-tree,  Cercis  Canadensis.^ 

Produces  a  profusion  of  rose-purple  pea-like  flowers  before  the  leaves 
appear;   foliage  also  attractive. 

Yellow-wood,  or  virgilia,  Cladrastis  tindoria.* 

One  of  the  finest  hardy  flowering  trees. 
Beech,  Fagus  ferruginea.'^-\ 

Specimens  which  are  symmetrically  developed  are  among  our  best  lawn 
trees;   picturesque  in  winter. 

European  beech,  F.'sylvatica.-\ 

Many  cultural  forms,  the  purple-leaved  being  everywhere  known.     There 
are  excellent  tricolored  varieties  and  weeping  forms. 

Black  ash,  Fraxinus  nigra  {F,  sambucifolia)*t 

One  of  the  best  of  the  light-leaved  trees;   does  well  on  dry  soils,  although 
native  to  swamps;  not  appreciated. 

White  ash,  F.  Americana. "^-f 
European  ash,  F.  excelsior. ■\ 

There  is  a  good  weeping  form  of  this. 

Maiden-hair  tree.  Ginkgo  hiloba  {Salishuria  adiantifolia) .% 

Very  odd  and  striking;   to  be  used  for  single  specimens  or  avenues. 


THE   ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS — TREES  325 

Honey  locust,  Gleditschia  triacanthos*'\ 

Tree  of  striking  habit,  with  big  branching  thorns  and  very  large  pods; 
there  is  also  a  thornless  form. 

Kentucky  coffee-tree,  Gymnocladus  Canadensis.^ 
Light  and  graceful;    unique  in  winter. 

Bitternut,  Hicoria  minima  (or  Carya  amara).* 
Much  like  black  ash  in  aspect ;  not  appreciated. 

Hickory,  H.  ovata,  (or  Carya  alba)*X  and  others. 
Pecan,  //.  Pecan.^'\ 

Hardy  in  places  as  far  north  as  New  Jersey,  and  reportea  still  farther. 

Butternut,  Juglans  cinerea."^ 

Walnut,  /.  nigra.* 

Varnish- tree,  Kcelreuteria  paniculata. 

A  medium-sized  tree  of  good  character,  producing  a  profusion  of  golden- 
yellow  flowers  in  July;   should  be  better  known. 

European  larch,  Larix  decidua  (L.  EuropcBa).^ 
American  larch  or  tamarack,  L.  Americana."^ 
Gum-tree,  sweet  gum,  Liquidambar  styracijiua.*-\ 

A  good  tree,  reaching  as  far  north  as  Connecticut,  and  hardy  in    parts 

of  western  New  York  although  not  growing  large;    foliage  maple-like;    a 

characteristic  tree  of  the  South. 

Tulip  tree  or  whitewood,  Liriodendron  Tulipifera.*f 

Unique  in  foliage  and  flower  and  deserving  to  be  more  planted. 

Cucumber  tree.  Magnolia  acuminata.*^ 
Native  in  the  Northern  states;    excellent. 

White  bay-tree,  M.  glauca.* 

Very  attractive  small  tree,  native  along  the  coast  to  Massachusetts;  where 
not  hardy,  the  young  growth  each  year  is  good. 

Of  the  foreign  magnolias  hardy  in  the  North,  two  species  and  one  group  of 
hybrids  are  prominent :  M.  stellata  (or  M.  Halleana)  and  M.  Yulan  (or  M. 
conspicua),  both  white-flowered,  the  former  very  early  and  having  9-18 
petals  and  the  latter  (which  is  a  larger  tree)  having  6-9  petals;  M.  Sou- 
langeana,  a  hybrid  group  including  the  forms  known  as  Lennei,  nigra,  Nor- 
bertiana,  speciosa,  grandis.  All  these  magnolias  are  deciduous  and  bloom 
before  the  leaves  appear. 


326  3fA^WAL   OF   GARDENING 

Mulberry,  Morus  riibra.^ 

White  mulberry,  ill.  alba. 

Russian  mulberry,  M.  alba  var.  Tatarica. 

Teas'  weeping  mulberry  is  a  form  of  the  Russian, 

Pepperidge  or  gum-tree,  Nyssa  sylvatica* 

One  of  the  oddest  and  most  picturesque  of  our  native  trees;  especially 
attractive  in  winter;  foliage  brilliant  red  in  autumn;  most  suitable  for  low 
lands. 

Iron-wood,  hop  hornbeam,  Ostrya  Virginica.^ 
A  good  small  tree,  with  hop-like  fruits. 

Sourwood,  sorrel-tree,  Oxydendrum  arboreum.* 

Interesting  small  tree  native  from  Pennsylvania  in  the  high  land  south,  and 
should  be  reliable  where  it  grows  wild. 

Plane  or  buttonwood,  Platanus  occidentalis.^^X 

Young  or  middle-aged  trees  are  soft  and  pleasant  in  aspect,  but  they 
soon  become  thin  and  ragged  below;    unique  in  winter. 

European  plane-tree,  P.  onentalis.-\ 

Much  used  for  street  planting,  but  less  picturesque  than  the  American; 
several  forms.  * 

Aspen,  Populus  tremuloides.* 

Very  valuable  when  well  grown;  too  much  neglected  (Fig.  33).  Most  of 
the  poplars  are  suitable  for  pleasure  grounds,  and  as  nurses  for  slower  grow- 
ing and  more  emphatic  trees  (p.  41). 

Large-toothed  aspen,  P.  grandidentata.'^ 

Unique  in  summer  color;  heavier  in  aspect  than  the  above;  old  trees 
become  ragged. 

Weeping  poplar,  P.  grandidentata,  var.  pendula. 

An  odd,  small  tree,  suitable  for  small  places,  but,  like  all  weeping  trees, 
likely  to  be  planted  too  freely. 

Cottonwood,  p.  deltoides  (P.  monilifera).'^ 

The  staminate  specimens,  only,  should  be  planted  if  possible,  as  the  cotton 
of  the  seed-pods  is  disagreeable  when  carried  by  winds;  var.  aurea%  is  one 
of  the  good  golden-leaved  trees. 

Balm  of  Gilead,  P.  balsamifera*  and  var.  candicans.* 

Desirable  for  remote  groups  or  belts.     Foliage  not  pleasant  in  color. 


THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  TREES  327 

Lombardy  poplar,  P.  nigra,  var.  Italica. 

Desirable  for  certain  purposes,  but  used  too  indiscriminately  (p.  41);  it  is 
likely  to  be  short-lived  in  northern  climates. 

White  poplar,  abele,  P.  alba. 
Sprouts  badly;   several  forms. 

Bolle's  poplar,  P.  alba,  var.  Bolleana. 

Habit  much  like  the  Lombardy ;  leaves  curiously  lobed,  very  white  beneath, 
making  a  pleasant  contrast  (p.  218). 

Certinensis  poplar,  P.  laurifolia  (P.  Certinensis). 

A  very  hardy  Siberian  species,  much  like  P.  ddtoides,  useful  for  severe 
climates. 

Wild  black  cherry,  Prunus  serotina* 
European  bird  cherry,  P.  Padus. 

A  small  tree  much  like  the  choke  cherry,  but  a  freer  grower,  with  larger 
flowers,  and  racemes  which  appear  about  a  week  later. 

Choke  cherry,  P.  Virginiana.^ 
Very  showy  while  in  flower. 

Purple  plum,  P.  cerasifera  var.  atropurpurea  (var.  Pissardi), 
One  of  our  most  reliable  purple-leaved  trees. 

Rose-bud  cherry,  P.  pendula  {P.  subhirlella) . 

A  tree  of  drooping  habit  and  beautiful  rose-pink  flowers  preceding  the 
leaves. 

Japanese  flowering  cherry,  P.  Pseudo-Cerasus. 

In  many  forms,  the  famous  flowering  cherries  of  Japan,  but  not  reliable 
North. 

There  are  ornamental-flowered  peaches  and  cherries,  more  curious  and 
interesting  than  useful. 

Wild  crab,  Pyrus  coronaria^  and  P.  loensis.* 

Very  showy  while  in  flower,  blooming  after  apple  blossoms  have  fallen; 
old  specimens  become  picturesque  in  form.  P.  loensis  flore  plenot  (Bechtel'a 
Crab)  is  a  handsome  double  form. 

Siberian  crab,  P.  baccata.X 

Excellent  small  tree,  both  in  flower  and  fruit. 


328  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Flowering  crab,  P.  floribunda. 

Pretty  both  in  flower  and  fruit;  a  large  shrub  or  small  tree;  varioua 
forms. 

Hall's  crab,  P.  Halliana  (P.  Parkmani). 

One  of  the  best  of  the  flowering  crabs,  particularly  the  double  form. 
Various  forms  of  double-flowering  apple  are  on  the  market. 

Swamp  white  oak,  Quercus  6icofor.*t 

A  desirable  tree,  usually  neglected;   very  picturesque  in  winter. 

Bur  oak,  Q.  macrocarpa.'^^ 

Chestnut  oak,    Q.   Prinusj^^  and    especially   the    closely   related    Q. 

Muhlenhergii  (or  Q.  acuminata)  ."^-^ 
White  oak,  Q.  aZ6a.*t 
Shingle  oak,  Q.  imhricaria.'^\ 
Scarlet  oak,  Q.  coccinea.^^ 

This  and  the  next  two  are  glossy-leaved,  and  are  desirable  for  bright 
planting. 

Black  oak,  Q.  velutina  {Q.  tinctoria)  *-\  ♦ 

Red  oak,  Q.  rubra  *-\X 
Pin  oak,  Q.  palustris.*'\ 

Excellent  for  avenues;   transplants  well. 

Willow  oak,  Q.  Phellos* 
English  oak,  Q.  Robur. 

Many  forms  represented  by  two  types,  probably  good  species,  Q.  pedun- 
culata  (with  stalked  acorns)  and  Q.  sessiliflora  (with  stalkless  acorns).  Some 
of  the  forms  are  reliable  in  the  Northern  states. 

The  oaks  are  slow  growers  and  usually  transplant  with  difficulty.  Natural 
specimens  are  most  valuable.  A  large  well-grown  oak  is  one  of  the  grandest 
of  trees. 

Locust,  Robinia  Pseudacacia.^^ 

Attractive  in  flower;  handsome  as  single  specimens  when  young;  many 
forms;   used  also  for  hedges. 

Peach-leaved  willow,  Salix  amygdaloides* 

Very  handsome  small  tree,  deserving  more  attention.  This  and  the  next 
valuable  in  low  places  or  along  water-courses. 

Black  willow,  S.  nigra.* 


THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS — TREES  329 

Weeping  willow,  S.  Bahylonica. 

To  be  planted  sparingly,  preferably  near  water;  the  sort  known  as  the 
Wisconsin  weeping  willow  appears  to  be  much  hardier  than  the  common 
type;   many  forms. 

White  willow,  S.  alba,  and  various  varieties,  one  of  which  is  the  Golden 
willow. 

Tree  willows  are  most  valuable,  as  a  rule,  when  used  for  temporary  plan- 
tations or  as  nurses  for  better  trees  (p.  42). 

Laurel-leaved  willow,  S.  laurifolia.X 

A  small  tree  used  in  cold  regions  for  shelter-belts;  also  a  good  ornamental 
tree.     See  also  under  Shrubs  (p.  301). 

Sassafras,  Sassafras  officinalis. *'\ 

Suitable  in  the  borders  of  groups  or  for  single  specimens;  peculiar  in 
winter;   too  much  neglected. 

Rowan    or    European     mountain    ash,    Sorhus    Aucuparia    (Pyrus 

Aucwparia) .% 
Service-tree,  S.  domestica. 

Fruit  handsomer  than  that  of  the  mountain  ash  and  more  persistent; 

small  tree. 

Oak-leaved  mountain  ash,  S.  hybrida  {S.  quercifolia). 
Small  tree,  deserving  to  be  better  known. 

Bald  cypress,  Taxodium  distichum.* 

Not  entirely  hardy  at  Lansing,  Mich. ;  often  becomes  scraggly  after  fif- 
teen or  twenty  years,    but  a  good  tree ;   many  cultural  forms. 

American  linden  or  basswood,  Tilia  Americana*-^ 

Very  valuable  for  single  trees  on  large  lawns,  or  for  roadsides, 

European   linden,    T.   vulgaris  and    T.  platyphyllos  {T.  Europcea   of 
nurserymen  is  probably  usually  the  latter). t 
Has  the  general  character  of  the  American  basswood. 

European  silver  linden,  T.  tomentosa  and  varieties. f 

Very  handsome;  leaves  silvery  white  beneath;  among  others  is  a  weef>- 
ing  variety. 

American  elm,  JJlmus  Americana.^  t 

On£  of  the  most  graceful  and  variable  of  trees;  useful  for  many  purposes 
and  a  standard  street  tree. 


330  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Cork  elm,  U.  racemosa* 

Softer  in  aspect  than  the  last,  and  more  picturesque  in  winter,  having  promt 
nent  ridges  of  bark  on  its  branches;   slow  grower. 

Red  or  slippery  elm,  U.  fulva* 

Occasionally  useful  in  a  group  or  shelter-belt ;   a  stiff  grower. 

English  elm,  U.  campestris,  and  Scotch  or  wych  elm,  U.  scabra  {U. 
mantana) . 

Often  planted,  but  are  inferior  to  U.  Americana  for  street  planting,  al- 
though useful  in  collections.     These  have  many  horticultural  forms. 

Non-coniferous  trees  for  the  South, 

Among  deciduous  trees  for  the  region  of  Washington  and 
south  may  be  mentioned:  Acer,  the  American  and  European 
species  as  for  the  North;  Catalpa  hignonioides  and  especially 
C.  speciosa;  celtis;  cercis,  both  American  and  Japanese;  flower- 
ing dogwood,  profusely  native;  white  ash;  ginkgo;  koelreuteria; 
sweet  gum  (liquidambar) ;  American  linden;  tuhp  tree;  mag- 
nolias much  as  for  the  North;  China-berry  (Melia  Azedarach); 
Texas  umbrella-tree  (var.  mnhraculiformis  of  the  preceding); 
mulberries;  oxydendrum;  paulownia;  oriental  plane-tree; 
native  oaks  of  the  regions;  Robinia  Pseudacacia;  weeping 
willow;  Sophora  Japonica;  Sterculia  platanifolia;  American 
elm. 

Broad-leaved  evergreens  of  real  tree  size  useful  for  the  South 
may  be  found  among  the  cherry  laurels,  magnolias,  and  oaks. 
Among  the  cherry  laurels  are  :  Portugal  laurel  (Prunus  Lusi- 
tanica),  English  cherry  laurel  in  several  forms  (P.  Laurocerasus)  y 
and  the  ''mock-orange"  or  ''wild  orange"  (P.  Caroliniana). 
In  magnolia,  the  splendid  M.  grandiflora  is  everywhere  used. 
In  oaks,  the  live-oak  (Quercus  Virginiana,  known  also  as 
Q.  virens  and  Q.  sempervirens)  is  the  universal  species.  The 
cork  oak  {Q,  Suher)  is  also  recommended. 


THE   ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS — CONIFERS  331 

8.   Coniferous  Evergreen  Shrubs  and  Trees 

In  this  country  the  word  ''  evergreen  "  is  understood  to  mean 
coniferous  trees  with  persistent  leaves,  as  pines,  spruces,  firs, 
cedars,  junipers,  arborvita?,  retinosporas,  and  the  hke.  These 
trees  have  always  been  favorites  with  plant  lovers,  as  they  have 
very  distinctive  forms  and  other  characteristics.  Many  of 
them  are  of  the  easiest  culture. 

It  is  a  common  notion  that,  since  spruces  and  other  conifers 
grow  so  symmetrically,  they  will  not  stand  pruning;  but  this  is 
an  error.  They  may  be  pruned  with  as  good  effect  as  other 
trees,  and  if  they  tend  to  grow  too  tall,  the  leader  may  be  stopped 
without  fear.  A  new  leader  will  arise,  but  in  the  meantime  the 
upward  growth  of  the  tree  will  be  somewhat  checked,  and  the 
effect  will  be  to  make  the  tree  dense.  The  tips  of  the  branches 
may  also  be  headed  in  with  the  same  effect.  The  beauty  of  an 
evergreen  lies  in  its  natural  form;  therefore,  it  should  not  be 
sheared  into  unusual  shapes,  but  a  gentle  trimming  back,  as 
suggested,  will  tend  to  prevent  the  Norway  spruce  and  others 
from  growing  open  and  ragged.  After  the  tree  attains  some 
age,  4  or  5  in.  may  be  taken  off  the  ends  of  the  main  branches 
every  year  or  two  (in  spring  before  growth  begins)  with  good 
results.  This  slight  trimming  is  ordinarily  done  with  Waters's 
long-handled  pruning  shears. 

There  is  much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  proper  time  for 
the  transplanting  of  evergreens,  which  means  that  there  is  more 
than  one  season  in  which  they  may  be  moved.  It  is  ordinarily 
unsafe  to  transplant  them  in  the  fall  in  northern  climates  or 
bleak  situations,  since  the  evaporation  from  the  foHage  during 
the  winter  is  hkely  to  injure  the  plant.  The  best  results  are 
usually  secured  in  spring  or  summer  planting.  In  spring  they 
may  be  moved  rather  late,  just  as  new  growth  is  beginning. 
Some  persons  also  plant  them  in  August  or  early  September, 
as  the  roots  secure  a  hold  on  the  soil  before  winter.     In  the 


332  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

Southern  states  transplanting  may  be  done  at  most  times  of  the 
year,  but  late  fall  and  early  spring  are  usually  advised. 

In  transplanting  conifers,  it  is  very  important  that  the  roots 
be  not  exposed  to  the  sun.  They  should  be  moistened  and 
covered  with  burlaps  or  other  material.  The  holes  should  be 
ready  to  receive  them.  If  the  trees  are  large,  or  if  it  has  been 
necessary  to  trim  in  the  roots,  the  top  should  be  cut  when  the 
tree  is  set. 

Large  evergreens  (those  10  ft.  and  more  high)  are  usually 
best  transplanted  late  in  winter,  at  a  time  when  a  large  ball  of 
earth  may  be  moved  with  them.  A  trench  is  dug  around  the 
tree,  it  being  deepened  a  little  day  by  day  so  that  the  frost  can 
work  into  the  earth  and  hold  it  in  shape.  When  the  ball  is 
thoroughly  frozen,  it  is  hoisted  on  to  a  stone-boat  or  truck  (Fig. 
148)  and  moved  to  its  new  position. 

Perhaps  the  handsomest  of  all  the  native  conifers  of  the  north- 
eastern United  States  is  the  ordinary  hemlock,  or  hemlock  spruce 
(the  one  so  much  used  for  lumber) ;  but  it  is  usually  difficult  to 
move.  Transplanted  trees  from  nurseries  are  usually  safest. 
If  the  trees  are  taken  from  the  wild,  they  should  be  selected 
from  open  and  sunny  places. 

For  neat  and  compact  effects  near  porches  and  along  walks, 
the  dwarf  retinosporas  are  very  useful. 

Most  of  the  pines  and  spruces  are  too  coarse  for  planting  very 
close  to  the  residence.  They  are  better  at  some  distance  removed, 
where  they  serve  as  a  background  to  other  planting.  If  they 
are  wanted  for  individual  specimens,they  should  be  given  plenty 
of  room,  so  that  the  limbs  will  not  be  crowded  and  the  tree  be- 
come misshapen.  Whatever  else  is  done  to  the  spruces  and 
firs,  the  lower  limbs  should  not  be  trimmed  up,  at  least  not  until 
the  tree  has  become  so  old  that  the  lowest  branches  die.  Some 
species  hold  their  branches  much  longer  than  others.  The 
oriental  spruce  (Picea  orientalis)  is  one  of  the  best  in  this 
respect.     The  occasional  slight  heading-in,  that  has  been  men- 


THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  CONIFERS  333 

tioned,  will  tend  to  preserve  the  lower  limbs,  and  it  will  not  be 
marked  enough  to  alter  the  form  of  the  tree. 

The  number  of  excellent  coniferous  evergreens  now  offered  in 
the  American  trade  is  large.  They  are  slow  of  growth  and 
require  much  room  if  good  specimens  are  to  be  obtained;  but 
if  the  space  can  be  had  and  the  proper  exposure  secured,  no 
trees  add  greater  dignity  and  distinction  to  an  estate.  Reli- 
able comments  on  the  rarer  conifers  may  be  found  in  the  cata- 
logues of  the  best  nurserymen. 

List  of  shrubby  conifers. 

The  following  list  contains  the  most  usual  of  the  shrub-like 
coniferous  evergreens,  with  asterisks  (*)  to  mark  those  native  to 
this  country.  The  double  dagger  (t)  in  this  and  the  succeeding 
list  marks  those  species  that  are  found  to  be  hardy  at  Ottawa, 
Ontario,  and  are  recommended  by  the  Central  Experimental 
Farm  of  Canada. 

Dwarf  arborvitae,  Thuja  occidentalis,'^ 

There  are  many  dwarf  and  compact  varieties  of  arborvitre,  most  of  which 
are  excellent  for  small  places.  The  most  desirable  for  general  purposes,  and 
also  the  largest,  is  the  so-called  Siberian.  Other  very  desirable  forms  are 
those  sold  as  globosa,  ericoides,  compacta,X  Hovey,X  Ellwangeriana,X  ■pyra- 
midalis,%  Wareana  (or  Sihirica),%  and  aurea  Douglasii.X 

Japanese  arborvitaB  or  retinospora,  Chamoecyparis  of  various  species. 
Retinosporas  t  under  names  as  follows:  Cupressus  ericoides,  2  ft.,  with  fine 
soft  delicate  green  foliage  that  assumes  a  purplish  tinge  in  winter;  C. 
pisi/era,  one  of  the  best,  with  a  pendulous  habit  and  bright  green  foliage; 
C.  pisi/era  var.  filifera,  with  drooping  branches  and  thread-like  pendulous 
branches;  C.  pisi/era  var.  plumosa,  more  compact  than  P.  jxisi/era  and 
feathery;  var.  aurea  of  the  last,  "one  of  the  most  beautiful  golden-leaved 
evergreen  shrubs  in  cultivation." 

Juniper,  Juniperus  communis*  and  garden  varieties. 

The  juniper  is  a  partially  trailing  plant,  of  loose  habit,  suitable  for  banks 
and  rocky  places.  There  are  upright  and  very  formal  varieties  of  it,  the  best 
being  those  sold  as  var.  Hibernica  (/astigiata) ,X  "Irish  juniper,"  and  var. 
Suecica,  "Swedish  juniper." 


334  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Northern  juniper,  /.  Sabina,  var.  prostrata* 

One  of  the  best  of  the  low,  diffuse  conifers;   var.  tamariscifolia,X  1-2  ft. 

Chinese  and  Japanese  junipers  in  many  forms,  /.  Chinensis. 
Dwarf  Norway  spruce,  Picea  excelsa,  dwarf  forms. 

Several  very  dwarf  sorts  of  the  Norway  spruce  are  in  cultivation,  some  ol 
which  are  to  be  recommended. 

Dwarf  pine,  Pinus  montana,  var.  jpumilio. 
Mugho  pine,  P.  montana  var.  Mughus.X 
There  are  other  desirable  dwarf  pines. 

Wild  yew,  Taxus  Canadensis* 

Common  in  woods;  a  wide-spreading  plant  known  as  "ground  hemlock"; 
3-4  ft. 

Arboreous  conifers. 

The  evergreen  conifers  that  one  is  hkely  to  plant  may  be  roughly 
classed  as  pines;  spruces  and  firs;  cedars  and  junipers;  arborvitae; 
yews. 

White  Pine,  Pinus  Strobus.^X 

The  best  native  species  for  general  planting ;   retains  its  bright  green  color 
in  winter. 

Austrian  pine,  P.  Austriaca.l 

Hardy,  coarse,  and  rugged ;  suitable  only  for  large  areas;  foliage  very  dark. 

Scotch  pine,  P.  sylvestris.X 

Not  so  coarse  as  Austrian  pine,  with  a  lighter  and  bluer  foliage. 

Red  pine,  P.  resinosa.'^X 

Valuable  in  groups  and   belts;    usually  called   "Norway  pine";    rather 
heavy  in  expression. 

Bull  pine,  P.  ponderosa.^l 

A  strong  majestic  tree,  deserving  to  be  better  known  in  large  grounds; 
native  westward. 

Cembrian  pine,  P.  Cembra. 

A  very  fine  slow-growing  tree;    one  of  the  few  standard  pines  suitable  fol 
small  places. 


THE   ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS  —  CONIFERS  335 

Scrub  pine,  P.  divaricata  {P.  Banksiana)  .* 

A  small  tree,  more  odd  and  picturesque  than  beautiful,  but  desirable  in 
certain  i^laces. 

Mugho  pine,  P.  montana  var.  Mughus.X 

Usually  more  a  bush  than  a  tree  (2  to  12  ft.),  although  it  may  attain  a 
height  of  20-30  ft.;    mentioned  under  Shrubs  (p.  334). 

Norway  spruce,  Picea  excelsa.% 

The  most  commonly  planted  spruce;    loses  much  of  its  peculiar  beauty 
when  thirty  to  fifty  years  of  age;   several  dwarf  and  weeping  forms. 

White  spruce,  P.  alba.^l 

One  of  the  finest  of  the  spruces ;   a  more  compact  grower  than  the  last,  and 
not  so  coarse;   grows  slowly. 

Oriental  spruce,  P.  onentalis. 

Especially  valuable   from  its   habit   of  holding  its  lowest  limbs;  grows 
slowly;    needs  some  shelter. 

Colorado  blue  spruce,  P.  pungens*X 

In  color  the  finest  of  the  conifers;   grows  slowly;    seedlings  vary  much  in 
blueness. 

Alcock's  spruce,  P.  Alcockiana.X 

Excellent;    foliage  has  silvory  vmder  surfaces. 

Hemlock  spruce,  Tsuga  Canadensis.* 

The  common  lumber  hemlock,  but  excellent  for  hedges  and  as  a  lawn 
tree;  young  trees  may  need  partial  protection  from  sun. 

White  fir,  Abies  concolor.'^X 

Probably  the  best  of  the  native  firs  for  the  northeastern  region;    leaves 
broad,  glaucous. 

Nordmann's  fir,  A.  Nordmanniana. 

Excellent  in  every  way;   leaves  shining  above  and  lighter  beneath. 

Balsam  fir,  A.  halsamea.'* 

Loses  most  of  its  beauty  in  fifteen  or  twenty  years. 

Douglas  fir,  Pseudotsuga  Douglasii.*X 

Majestic  tree  of  the  northern  Pacific  slope,  hardy  in  the  east  when  grown 
from  seeds  from  far  north  or  high  mountains. 


336  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Red  cedar,  Juniperus  Virginiana.^ 

A  common  tree,  North  and  South;    several  horticultural  varieties. 

Arborvitae  (white  cedar,  erroneously).  Thuja  occidentalis.'^ 

Becomes  unattractive  after  ten  or  fifteen  years  on  poor  soils;    the  horti- 
cultural varieties  are  excellent;   see  p.  333,  and  Hedges,  p.  220. 

Japanese  yew,  Taxus  cuspidata. 
Hardy  small  tree. 

Conifers  for  the  South. 

Evergreen  conifers,  trees  and  bushes,  for  regions  south  of 
Washington:  Abies  Fraseri  and  A.  Picea  (A.  pedinata);  Nor- 
way spruce;  true  cedars,  Cedrus  Atlantica  and  Deodar  a;  cypress, 
Cupressus  Goveniana,  majestica,  sempervirens ;  Chamoecyparis 
Lawsoniana;  practically  all  junipers,  including  the  native 
cedar  (Juniperus  Virginiana) ;  practically  all  arborvitae,.  includ- 
ing the  oriental  or  biota  group;  retinosporas  (forms  of  chamse- 
cyparis  and  thuja  of  several  kinds);  Carolina  hemlock,  Tsuga 
Caroliniana;  English  yew,  Taxus  haccata;  Libocedrus  decur- 
rens;  cephalotaxus  and  podocarpus;  cryptomeria;  Bhotan 
pine,  Pinus  excelsa;  and  the  native  pines  of  the  regions. 

9.  Window-Gardens 

Although  the  making  of  window-gardens  may  not  be  properly 
a  part  of  the  planting  and  ornamenting  of  the  home  grounds,  yet 
the  appearance  of  the  residence  has  a  marked  effect  on  the 
attractiveness  or  unattractiveness  of  the  premises;  and  there 
is  no  better  place  than  this  in  which  to  discuss  the  subject. 
Furthermore,  window-gardening  is  closely  associated  with 
various  forms  of  temporary  plant  protection  about  the  resi- 
dence (Fig.  268). 

Window-gardens  are  of  two  types:  the  window-box  and 
porch-box  type,  in  which  the  plants  are  grown  outside  the  win- 
dow and  which  is  a  summer  or  warm- weather  effort;  the  inte- 


THE   ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS  ~  WINDOW-GARDENS     337 

rior  or  true  window-garden,  made  for  the  enjoyment  of  the  family 
in  its  internal  relations,  and  which  is  chiefly  a  winter  or  cold- 
weather  effort. 


268.  A  protection  for  chrysanthemums.  Very  good  plants  can  be  grown  under 
a  temporary  shed  cover.  The  roof  may  be  of  glass,  oiled  paper,  or  even 
of  wood.  Such  a  shed  cover  will  afford  a  very  effective  and  handy  protec- 
tion for  many  plants  (p.  366). 


The  window-box  for  outside  effect. 

Handsomely  finished  boxes,  ornamental  tiling,  and  bracket 
work  of  wood  and  iron  suitable  for  fitting  out  windows  for  the 
growing  of  plants,  are  on  the  market;  but  such,  while  desirable, 
are  by  no  means  necessary.  A  stout  pine  box  of  a  length  cor- 
responding to  the  width  of  the  window,  about  10  inches  wide 
and  6  deep,  answers  quite  as  well  as  a  finer  box,  since  it  will 
likely  be  some  distance  above  the  street,  and  its  sides,  moreover, 
are  soon  covered  by  the  vines.  A  zinc  tray  of  a  size  to  fit  into 
the  wooden  box  may  be  ordered  of  the  tinsmith.  It  will  tend 
to  keep  the  soil  from  drying  out  so  rapidly,  but  it  is  not  a  neces- 
sity. A  few  small  holes  in  the  bottom  will  provide  for  drain- 
age; but  with  carefulness  in  watering  these  are  not  necessary, 


338  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

since  the  box  by  its  exposed  position  will  dry  out  readily  during 
summer  weather,  unless  the  position  is  a  shaded  one.  In  the 
latter  case  provision  for  good  drainage  is  always  advisable. 

Since  there  is  more  or  less  cramping  of  roots,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  make  the  soil  richer  than  would  be  required  were  the 
plants  to  grow  in  the  garden.  The  most  desirable  soil  is  one 
that  does  not  pack  hard  like  clay,  nor  contract  much  when  dry, 
but  remains  porous  and  springy.  Such  a  soil  is  found  in  the 
potting  earth  used  by  florists,  and  it  may  be  obtained  from  them 
at  50  cents  to  |1  a  barrel.  Often  the  nature  of  the  soil  will  be 
such  as  to  make  it  desirable  to  have  at  hand  a  barrel  of  sharp 
sand  for  mixing  with  it,  to  make  it  more  porous  and  prevent 
baking.  A  good  fiUing  for  a  deep  box  is  a  layer  of  clinkers  or 
other  drainage  in  the  bottom,  a  layer  of  pasture  sod,  a  layer  of 
old  cow  manure,  and  fill  with  fertile  garden  earth. 

Some  window-gardeners  pot  the  plants  and  then  set  them  in 
the  window-box,  filling  the  spaces  between  the  pots  with  moist 
moss.  Others  plant  them  directly  in  the  earth.  The  former 
method,  as  a  general  rule,  is  to  be  preferred  in  the  winter 
window-garden;  the  latter  in  the  summer. 

The  plants  most  valuable  for  outside  boxes  are  those  of  droop- 
ing habit,  such  as  lobelias,  tropeolums,  othonna,  Kenilworth 
ivy,  verbena  (Fig.  269),  sweet  alyssum,  and  petunia.  Such 
plants  may  occupy  the  front  row,  v/hile  back  of  them  may  be 
the  erect-growing  plants,  as  geraniums,  hehotropes,  begonias 
(Plate  XX). 

For  shady  situations  the  main  dependence  is  on  plants  of 
graceful  form  or  handsome  foliage;  while  for  the  sunny  window 
the  selection  may  be  of  blooming  plants.  Of  the  plants  men- 
tioned below  for  these  two  positions,  those  marked  with  an 
asterisk  (*)  are  of  climbing  habit,  and  may  be  trained  up  about 
the  sides  of  the  window. 

Just  what  plants  will  be  most  suitable  depends  on  the  expo- 
sure.    For  the  shady  side  of  the  street,  the  more  delicate  kinds  of 


THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS — WINDOW-GARDENS     339 


269.   Bouquet  of  verbenas. 


340  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

plants  may  be  used.  For  full  exposure  to  the  sun,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  choose  the  more  vigorous-growing  kinds.  In  the 
latter  position,  suitable  plants  for  drooping  would  be:  trope- 
olums,*  passifloras,*  the  single  petunias,  sweet  alyssum,  lobehas, 
verbenas,  mesembryanthemums.  For  erect-growing  plants :  ge- 
raniums, heliotropes,  phlox.  If  the  position  is  a  shaded  one,  the 
drooping  plants  might  be  of  the  following:  tradescantia,  Kenil- 
worth  ivy,  senecio*  or  parlor  ivy,  sedums,  moneywort,*  vinca, 
smilax,*  lygodium*  or  climbing  fern.  Erect-growing  plants 
would  be  dracenas,  palms,  ferns,  coleus,  centaurea,  spotted  calla, 
and  others. 

After  the  plants  have  filled  the  earth  with  roots,  it  will 
be  desirable  to  give  the  surface  among  them  a  very  light 
sprinkHng  of  bone-dust  or  a  thicker  coating  of  rotted  manure 
from  time  to  time  during  the  summer;  or  instead  of  this,  a 
watering  with  weak  liquid  manure  about  once  a  week.  This 
is  not  necessary,  however,  until  the  growth  shows  that  the  roots 
have  about  exhausted  the  soil. 

In  the  fall  the  box  may  be  placed  on  the  inside  of  the  window. 
In  this  case  it  will  be  desirable  to  thin  out  the  foliage  somewhat, 
shorten  in  some  of  the  vines,  and  perhaps  remove  some  of  the 
plants.  It  will  also  be  desirable  to  give  a  fresh  coating  of  rich 
soil.  Increased  care  will  be  necessary,  also,  in  watering,  since 
the  plants  will  have  less  light  than  previously,  and,  moreover, 
there  may  be  no  provision  for  drainage. 

Porch-boxes  may  be  made  in  the  same  general  plan.  Since 
the  plants  are  likely  to  be  injured  in  porch-boxes,  and  since  these 
boxes  should  have  some  architectural  effect,  it  is  well  to  use 
abundantly  of  rather  heavy  greenery,  such  as  swordfern  (the 
common  form  of  Nephrolepis  exaltata)  or  the  Boston  fern. 
Asparagus  Sprengeri,  wandering  jew,  the  large  drooping  vinca 
(perhaps  the  variegated  form),  aspidistra.  With  these  or  simi- 
lar things  constituting  the  body  of  the  box  planting,  the  flower- 
ing plants  may  be  added  to  heighten  the  effect. 


THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  WINDOW-GARDENS      341 

The  inside  window-garden  y  or  ^^  house  plants  J  ^ 

The  winter  window-garden  may  consist  simply  of  a  jardi- 
niere, or  a  few  choice  pot-plants  on  a  stand  at  the  window,  or  of 
a  considerable  collection  with  more  or  less  elaborate  arrange- 
ments for  their  accommodation  in  the  way  of  box,  brackets, 
shelves,  and  stands.  Expensive  arrangements  are  by  no  means 
necessary,  nor  is  a  large  collection.  The  plants  and  flowers 
themselves  are  the  main  consideration,  and  a  small  collection 
well  cared  for  is  better  than  a  large  one  unless  it  can  be  easily 
accommodated  and  kept  in  good  condition. 

The  box  will  be  seen  near  at  hand,  and  so  it  may  be  more  or 
less  ornamental  in  character.  The  sides  may  be  covered  with 
ornamental  tile  held  in  place  by  molding;  or  a  light  lattice- 
work of  wood  surrounding  the  box  is  pretty.  But  a  neatly  made 
and  strong  box  of  about  the  dimensions  mentioned  on  page  337, 
with  a  strip  of  molding  at  the  top  and  bottom,  answers  just 
as  well;  and  if  painted  green,  or  some  neutral  shade,  only  the 
plants  will  be  seen  or  thought  of.  Brackets,  jardinieres,  and 
stands  may  be  purchased  of  any  of  the  larger  florists. 

The  box  may  consist  of  merely  the  wooden  receptacle;  but 
a  preferable  arrangement  is  to  make  it  about  eight  inches  deep 
instead  of  six,  then  have  the  tinsmith  make  a  zinc  tray  to  fit  the 
box.  This  is  provided  with  a  false  wooden  bottom,  with  cracks 
for  drainage,  two  inches  above  the  real  bottom  of  the  tray. 
The  plants  will  then  have  a  vacant  space  below  them  into  which 
drainage  water  may  pass.  Such  a  box  may  be  thoroughly  wat- 
ered as  the  plants  require  ^vithout  danger  of  the  water  running 
on  the  carpet.  Of  course,  a  faucet  should  be  provided  at  some 
suitable  point  on  a  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  tray,  to  permit 
of  its  being  drained  every  day  or  so  if  the  water  tends  to  accu- 
mulate. It  would  not  do  to  allow  the  water  to  remain  long; 
especially  should  it  never  rise  to  the  false  bottom,  as  then  the 
soil  would  be  kept  too  wet. 


342  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

The  window  for  plants  should  have  a  southern,  southeastern, 
or  eastern  exposure.  Plants  need  all  the  light  they  can  get  in 
the  winter,  especially  those  that  are  expected  to  bloom.  The 
window  should  be  tight-fitting.  Shutters  and  a  curtain  will  be 
an  advantage  in  cold  weather. 

Plants  like  a  certain  uniformity  in  conditions.  It  is  very 
trjdng  on  them,  and  often  fatal  to  success,  to  have  them  snug 
and  warm  one  night  and  pinched  in  a  temperature  only  a  few 
degrees  above  freezing  the  next.  Some  plants  will  live  in  spite 
of  it,  but  they  cannot  be  expected  to  prosper.  Those  whose 
rooms  are  heated  with  steam,  hot  water,  or  hot  air  will  have  to 
guard  against  keeping  rooms  too  warm  fully  as  much  as  keeping 
them  too  cool.  Rooms  in  brick  dwellings  that  have  been  warm 
all  day,  if  shut  up  and  made  snug  in  the  evening,  will  often  keep 
warm  over  night  without  heat  except  in  the  coldest  weather. 
Rooms  in  frame  dwellings  exposed  on  all  sides  soon  cool  down. 

It  is  difficult  to  grow  plants  in  rooms  lighted  by  gas.  Most 
living-rooms  have  air  too  dry  for  plants.  In  such  cases  the  bow- 
window  may  be  set  off  from  the  room  by  glass  doors;  one  then 
has  a  miniature  conservatory.  A  pan  of  water  on  the  stove 
or  on  the  register  and  damp  moss  among  the  pots,  will  help  to 
afford  plants  the  necessary  humidity. 

The  fohage  will  need  cleansing  from  time  to  time  to  free 
it  from  dust.  A  bath  tub  provided  with  a  ready  outlet  for  the 
water  is  an  excellent  place  for  this  purpose.  The  plants  may 
be  turned  on  their  sides  and  supported  on  a  small  box  above 
the  bottom  of  the  tub.  Then  they  may  be  freely  syringed  with- 
out danger  of  making  the  soil  too  wet.  It  is  usually  advisable 
not  to  wet  the  flowers,  however,  especially  the  white  waxen 
kinds,  like  hyacinths.  The  foliage  of  rex  begonias  should  be 
cleansed  with  a  piece  of  dry  or  only  slightly  moist  cotton.  But 
if  the  leaves  can  be  quickly  dried  off  by  placing  them  in  the 
open  air  on  mild  days,  or  moderately  near  the  stove,  the  foliage 
may  be  syringed. 


THE   ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS  — WINDOW-GARDENS        343 

Some  persons  attach  the  box  to  the  window,  or  support  it 
on  brackets  attached  below  the  window-sill;  but  a  preferable 
arrangement  is  to  support  the  box  on  a  low  and  hght  stand  of 
suitable  height  provided  with  rollers.  It  may  then  be  drawn 
back  from  the  window,  turned  around  from  time  to  time  to 
give  the  plants  light  on  all  sides,  or  turned  with  the  attractive 
side  in  as  may  be  desired. 

Often  the  plants  are  set  directly  in  the  soil;  but  if  they 
are  kept  in  pots  they  may  be  rearranged,  and  changed  about  to 
give  those  which  need  it  more  light.  Larger  plants  that  are 
to  stand  on  shelves  or  brackets  may  be  in  porous  earthenware 
pots;  but  the  smaller  ones  that  are  to  fill  the  window-box 
may  be  placed  in  heavy  paper  pots.  The  sides  of  these  are 
flexible,  and  the  plants  in  them  therefore  may  be  crowded  close 
together  with  great  economy  in  space.  When  pots  are  spaced, 
damp  sphagnum  or  other  moss  among  them  will  hold  them  in 
place,  keep  the  soil  from  drying  out  too  rapidly,  and  at  the  same 
time  give  off  moisture,  so  grateful  to  the  foliage. 

In  addition  to  the  stand,  or  box,  a  bracket  for  one  or  more 
pots  on  either  side  of  the  window,  about  one-third  or  half-way 
up,  will  be  desirable.  The  bracket  should  turn  on  a  basal  hinge 
or  pivot,  to  admit  of  swinging  it  forward  or  backward.  These 
bracket  plants  usually  suffer  for  moisture,  and  are  rather  diffi- 
cult to  manage. 

Florists  now  usually  grow  plants  suitable  for  window-gardens 
and  winter  flowering,  and  any  intelligent  florist,  if  asked,  will 
take  pleasure  in  making  out  a  suitable  collection.  The  plants 
should  be  ordered  early  in  the  fall;  the  florist  will  then  not  be 
so  crowded  for  time  and  can  give  the  matter  better  attention. 

Most  of  the  plants  suitable  for  the  winter  window-garden 
belong  to  the  groups  that  florists  grow  in  their  medium  and 
cool  houses.  The  former  are  given  a  night  temperature  of  about 
60°,  the  latter  about  50°.  In  each  case  the  temperature  is  10 
to  15°  higher  for  the  daytime.     Five  degrees  of  variation  below 


344  MANUAL   OF  GARDENING 

these  temperatures  will  be  allowable  without  any  injurious 
effects;  even  more  may  be  borne,  but  not  without  more  or  less 
check  to  the  plants.  In  bright,  sunny  weather  the  day  tempera- 
ture may  be  higher  than  in  cloudy  and  dark  weather. 

Plants  for  an  average  night  temperature  of  60°  (trade  names). 

Upright  flowering  plants.  —  Abutilons,  browallias,  calceolaria  "Lin 
coin  Park,"  begonias,  bouvardias,  euphorbias,  scarlet  sage,  richardia 
or  calla,  heliotropes,  fuchsias,  Chinese  hibiscus,  jasmines,   single  pe- 
tunias, swainsona,  billbergia,  freesias,  geraniums,  cupheas. 

Upright  foliage  plants.  —  Muehlenbeckia,  Cycas  revoluta,  Dracaena 
fragans  and  others,  palms,  cannas,  Farfugium  grande,  achyranthes, 
ferns, araucarias,  epiphyllums,  pandanus  or  "screw  pine," Pilea  arborea, 
Ficus  elastica,  Grevillea  robusta. 

Climbing  plants.  —  Asparagus  tenuissimus,  A.plimiosus,  Cobcea  scan- 
dens,  smilax,  Japanese  hop,  Madeira  vine  (Boussingaultia),  Senecio 
mikanioides  and  S.  ma^roglossus  (parlor  ivies).     See  also  list  below. 

Low-growing,  trailing,  or  drooping  plants.  —  These  may  be  used  for, 
baskets  and  edgings.     Flowering  kinds  are :    Sweet  alyssum,  lobelia, 
Fuchsia  procumbens,  mesembryanthemum,   Oxalis  pendula,  0.  flori- 
bunda  and  others,  Russelia  juncea,  Mahernia  odorata  or  honey -bell. 

Foliage  plants  of  drooping  habit.  —  Vincas,  Saxifraga  sarmentosa, 
Kenilworth  ivy,  tradescantia  or  wandering  jew,  Festuca  glauca,* 
othonna,  Isolepsis  gracilis,*  English  ivy,  Selaginella  denticulata,  and 
others.  Some  of  these  plants  flower  quite  freely,  but  the  flowers  are 
small  and  of  secondary  consideration.  Those  with  an  asterisk  (*) 
droop  but  slightly. 

Plants  for  an  average  night  temperature  of  50°. 

Upright  flowering  plants.  —  Azaleas,  cyclamens,  carnations,  chrys- 
anthemums, geraniums,  Chinese  primroses,  stevias,  marguerite  or  Paris 
daisy,  single  petunias,  Anthemis  coronaria,  camellias,  ardisia  (berries), 
cinerarias,  violets,  hyacinths,  narcissus,  tulips,  the  Easter  lily  when  in 
bloom,  and  others. 

Upright  foliage  plants.  —  Pittosporums,  palms,  aucuba,  euonymus 
(golden  and  silvery  variegated),  araucarias,  pandanus,  dusty  millers. 


THE   ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS — WINDOW-GARDENS     345 

Climbing  'plants.  —  English  ivy,  maurandia,  senecio  or  parlor  ivy, 
lygodium  (climbing  fern). 

Drooping  or  trailing  plants.  —  Flowering  kinds  are :  Sweet  alyssum, 
Mahernia  odorata,  Russelia  and  ivy  geranium. 

Bulbs  in  the  window-garden. 

Bulbs  flowering  through  the  winter  add  to  the  list  of  house 
plants  a  charming  variety.  The  labor,  time,  and  skill  required 
is  much  less  than  for  growing  many  of  the  larger  plants  more 
commonly  used  for  winter  decorations  (for  instructions  on 
growing  bulbs  out-of-doors,  see  p.  281;  also  the  entries  in 
Chapter  VIII). 

Hyacinths,  narcissus,  tulips,  and  crocus,  and  others  can  be 
made  to  flower  in  the  winter  without  difficulty.  Secure  the 
bulbs  so  as  to  be  able  to  pot  them  by  the  middle  or  last  of  Octo- 
ber, or  if  earlier  all  the  better.  The  soil  should  be  rich  sandy 
loam,  if  possible;  if  not,  the  best  that  can  be  got,  to  which  about 
one-fourth  the  bulk  of  sand  is  added  and  mixed  thoroughly. 

If  ordinary  flower-pots  are  to  be  used,  place  in  the  bottom  a 
few  pieces  of  broken  pots,  charcoal,  or  small  stones  for  drainage, 
then  fill  the  pot  with  dirt  so  that  when  the  bulbs  are  set  on  the 
dirt  the  top  of  the  bulb  is  even  with  the  rim  of  the  pot.  Fill 
around  it  with  soil,  leaving  just  the  tip  of  the  bulb  showing 
above  the  earth.  If  the  soil  is  heavy,  a  good  plan  is  to  sprinkle 
a  small  handful  of  sand  under  the  bulb  to  carry  off  the  water, 
as  is  done  in  the  beds  outdoors.  If  one  does  not  have  pots,  he 
may  use  boxes.  Starch  boxes  are  a  good  size  to  use,  as  they  are 
not  heavy  to  handle;  and  excellent  flowers  are  sometimes  se- 
cured from  bulbs  planted  in  old  tomato-cans.  If  boxes  or  cans 
are  used,  care  must  be  taken  to  have  holes  in  the  bottoms  to 
let  the  water  run  out.  A  large  hyacinth  bulb  will  do  well  in  a 
5-inch  pot.  The  same  size  pot  will  do  for  three  or  four  narcis- 
suses or  eight  to  twelve  crocuses. 

After  the  bulbs  are  planted  in  the  pots  or  other  receptacles, 


346  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

they  should  be  placed  in  a  cool  place,  either  in  a  cold  pit  or 
cellar,  or  on  the  shady  side  of  a  building,  or,  better  yet,  plunged 
or  buried  up  to  the  rim  of  the  pot  in  a  shady  border.  This  is 
done  to  force  the  roots  to  grow  while  the  top  stands  still,  as 
only  the  bulbs  with  good  roots  will  give  good  flowers.  When 
the  weather  gets  so  cold  that  a  crust  is  frozen  on  the  soil,  the 
pots  should  be  covered  with  a  little  straw,  and  as  the  weather 
gets  colder  more  straw  must  be  used.  In  six  to  eight  weeks 
after  planting  the  bulbs,  they  should  have  made  roots  enough 
to  grow  the  plant,  and  they  may  be  taken  up  and  placed  in  a 
cool  room  for  a  week  or  so,  after  which,  if  they  have  started 
into  growth,  they  may  be  taken  into  a  warmer  room  where  they 
can  have  plenty  of  light.  They  will  grov/  very  rapidly  now  and 
will  want  much  water,  and  after  the  flowers  begin  to  show,  the 
pots  may  stand  in  a  saucer  of  water  all  the  time.  When  just 
coming  into  bloom  the  plants  may  have  full  sunlight  part  of 
the  time  to  help  bring  out  the  color  of  the  flowers. 

Hyacinths,  tulips,  and  narcissus  all  require  similar  treatment. 
When  well  rooted,  which  will  be  in  six  or  eight  weeks,  they  are 
brought  out  and  given  a  temperature  of  some  55°  to  60°  till 
the  flowers  appear,  when  they  should  be  kept  in  a  cooler  tem- 
perature, say  50°.  The  single  Roman  hyacinth  is  an  excellent 
house  plant.  The  flowers  are  small,  but  they  are  graceful  and 
are  well  adapted  to  cutting.     It  is  early. 

The  Easter  lily  is  managed  the  same  way,  except  to  hasten 
its  flowers  it  should  be  kept  at  not  lower  than  60°  at  night. 
Warmer  will  be  better.  Lily  bulbs  may  be  covered  an  inch  or 
more  deep  in  the  pots. 

Freesias  may  be  potted  six  or  more  in  a  pot  of  mellow  soil, 
and  then  started  into  growth  at  once.  At  first  they  may  be 
given  a  night  temperature  of  50° ;  and  55°  to  60°  when  they  have 
begun  to  grow. 

Small  bulbs,  as  snowdrop  and  crocus,  are  planted  several 
or  a  dozen  in  a  pot  and  buried,  or  treated  like  hyacinths;   but 


THE   ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS — WINDOW-GARDENS     347 

they  are  very  sensitive  to  heat,  and  require  to  be  given  the 
light  only  when  they  have  started  to  grow,  without  any  forcing. 
Forty  to  45°  will  be  as  warm  as  they  ever  need  be  kept. 

Watering  house  plants. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  rules  for  the  watering  of  plants.  Con- 
ditions that  hold  with  one  grower  are  different  from  those  of 
another.  Advice  must  be  general.  Give  one  good  watering 
at  the  time  of  potting,  after  which  no  water  should  be  given 
until  the  plants  really  need  it.  If,  on  tapping  the  pot,  it  gives 
out  a  clear  ring,  it  is  an  indication  that  water  is  needed.  In 
the  case  of  a  soft- wooded  plant,  just  before  the  leaves  begin 
to  show  signs  of  wilt  is  the  time  for  watering.  When  plants 
are  taken  up  from  the  ground,  or  have  their  roots  cut  back  in 
repotting,  gardeners  rely,  after  the  first  copious  watering,  on 
syringing  the  tops  two  or  three  times  each  day,  until  a  new 
root-growth  has  started,  watering  at  the  roots  only  when  abso- 
lutely necessary.  Plants  that  have  been  potted  into  larger 
pots  will  grow  without  the  extra  attention  of  syringing,  but 
those  from  the  borders  that  have  had  their  roots  mutilated  or 
shortened,  should  be  placed  in  a  cool,  shady  spot  and  be 
syringed  often.  One  soon  becomes  familiar  with  the  wants  of 
individual  plants,  and  can  judge  closely  as  to  need  of  water. 
All  soft-wooded  plants  with  a  large  leaf-surface  need  more 
water  than  hard-wooded  plants,  and  a  plant  in  luxuriant  growth 
of  any  kind  more  than  one  that  has  been  cut  back  or  become 
defoliated.  When  plants  are  grown  in  living-rooms,  moisture 
must  be  supplied  from  some  source,  and  if  no  arrangement  has 
been  made  for  securing  moist  air,  the  plants  should  be  syringed 
often. 

All  plant-growers  should  learn  to  withhold  water  when 
plants  are  ''resting"  or  not  in  active  growth.  Thus  camellias, 
azaleas,  rex  begonias,  palms,  and  many  other  things  are  usually 
not  in  their  growing  period  in  fall  and  midwinter,  and  they 


S48  MANUAL   OF  GARDENING 

should  then  have  only  sufficient  water  to  keep  them  in  con- 
dition. When  growth  begins,  apply  water;  and  increase  the 
water  as  the  growth  becomes  more  rapid. 

Hanging  baskets. 

To  have  a  good  hanging  basket,  it  is  necessary  that  some  careful 
provision  be  made  to  prevent  too  rapid  drying  out  of  the  earth. 
It  is  customary,  therefore,  to  Hne  the  pot  or  basket  with 
moss.  Open  wire  baskets,  like  a  horse  muzzle,  are  often 
lined  with  moss  and  used  for  the  growing  of  plants.  Pre- 
pare the  earth  by  mixing  some  well-decayed  leafmold  with  rich 
garden  loam,  thereby  making  an  earth  that  will  retain  mois- 
ture. Hang  the  basket  in  a  light  place,  but  still  not  in  direct 
sunlight;  and,  if  possible,  avoid  putting  it  where  it  will  be  ex- 
posed to  drying  wind.  In  order  to  water  the  Basket,  it  is  often 
advisable  to  sink  it  into  a  pail  or  tub  of  water. 

Various  plants  are  well  adapted  to  hanging  baskets.  Among 
the  drooping  or  vine-like  kinds  are  the  strawberry  geranium, 
Kenil worth  ivy,  maurandia,  German  iv}-,  canary-bird  flower, 
Asparagus  Sprengeri,  ivy  geranium,  trailing  fuchsia,  wandering 
jew,  andothonna.  Among  the  erect-growing  plants  that  pro- 
duce flowers.  Lobelia  Erinus,  sweet  alyssum,  petunias,  oxahs, 
and  various  geraniums  are  to  be  recommended.  Among  foliage 
plants  such  things  as  coleus,  dusty  miller,  begonia,  and  some 
geraniums  are  adaptable. 

Aquarium. 

A  pleasant  adjunct  to  a  window-garden,  living  room,  or  con- 
servatory, is  a  large  glass  globe  or  glass  box  containing  water, 
in  which  plants  and  animals  are  living  and  growing.  A  sohd 
glass  tank  or  globe  is  better  than  a  box  with  glass  sides,  because 
it  does  not  leak,  but  the  box  must  be  used  if  one  wants  a  large 
aquarium.  For  most  persons  it  is  better  to  buy  the  aquarium 
box  than  to  attempt  to  make  it.     Five  points  are  important  in 


THE   ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS  —  WINDOW-GARDENS     341V 

making  and  keeping  an  aquarium:  (1)  The  equilibrium  between 
plant  and  animal  life  must  be  secured  and  maintained;  (2)  the 
aquarium  must  be  open  on  top  to  the  air  or  well  ventilated; 
(3)  the  temperature  should  be  kept  between  40°  and  50°  for 
ordinary  animals  and  plants  (do  not  place  in  full  sun  in  a  hot 
window) ;  (4)  it  is  well  to  choose  such  animals  for  the  aquarium 
as  are  adapted  to  life  in  still  water;  (5)  the  water  must  be  kept 
fresh,  either  by  the  proper  balance  of  plant  and  animal  life  or 
by  changing  the  water  frequently,  or  by  both. 

The  aquatic  plants  of  the  neighborhood  may  be  kept  in  the 
aquarium,  —  such  things  as  myriophyllums,  charas,  eel-grass, 
duckmeats  or  lemnas,  cabomba  or  fish  grass,  arrow-leafs  or  sagit- 
taria,  and  the  Hke;  also  the  parrot's  feather,  to  be  bought  of 
florists  (a  species  of  myriophyllum).  Of  animals,  there  are 
fishes  (particularly  minnows),  water  insects,  tadpoles,  clams, 
snails.  If  the  proper  balance  is  maintained  between  plar.t  and 
animal  life,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  change  the  water  so  fre- 
quently. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE    GROWING    OF    THE    ORNAMENTAL    PLANTS  —  INSTRUCTIONS 
ON    PARTICULAR    KINDS 

In  the  preceding  chapter  advice  is  given  that  applies  to  groups 
or  classes  of  plants,  and  many  lists  are  inserted  to  guide  the 
grower  in  his  choice  or  at  least  to  suggest  to  him  the  kinds  of 
things  that  may  be  grown  for  certain  purposes  or  conditions. 
It  now  remains  to  give  instructions  on  the  growing  of  particular 
kinds  or  species  of  plants. 

It  is  impossible  to  include  instructions  on  any  great  number 
of  plants  in  a  book  like  this.  It  is  assumed  that  the  user  of 
this  book  already  knows  how  to  grow  the  familiar  or  easily 
handled  plants ;  if  he  does  not,  a  book  is  not  likely  to  help  him 
very  much.  In  this  chapter  all  such  things  as  the  common 
annuals  and  perennials  and  shrubs  and  trees  are  omitted.  If 
the  reader  is  in  doubt  about  any  of  these,  or  desires  information 
concerning  them,  he  will  have  to  consult  the  catalogues  of 
responsible  seedsmen  and  nurserymen  or  cyclopedic  works,  or 
go  to  some  competent  person  for  advice. 

In  this  chapter  are  brought  together  instructions  on  the  grow- 
ing of  such  plants  commonly  found  about  home  grounds  and  in 
window-gardens  as  seem  to  demand  somewhat  special  or  par- 
ticular treatment  or  about  which  the  novice  is  likely  to  ask; 
and  of  course  these  instructions  must  be  brief. 

It  may  be  repeated  here  (p.  115)  that  a  person  cannot  ex- 
pect to  grow  a  plant  satisfactorily  until  he  learns  the  natu- 
ral time  of  the  plant  to  grow  and  to  bloom.  Many  persons 
handle  their  begonias,  cacti,  and  azaleas  as  if  they  should  be 

360 


XXIII.    Cornflower  or  bachelor's  button.     Centaurea  Cyatius. 


ABU  TIL  ON  —  AGAPANTHUS  351 

active  the  whole  year  round.  The  key  to  the  situation  is  water: 
at  what  part  of  the  year  to  withhold  and  at  what  part  to  apply 
is  one  of  the  very  first  things  to  learn  (pp.  100,  175,  347). 

Abutilons,  or  flowering  maples  as  they  are  often  called,  make  good 
house  plants  and  bedding  plants.  Nearly  all  house  gardeners  have  at 
least  one  plant. 

Common  abutilons  may  be  grown  from  seed  or  from  cuttings  of 
young  wood.  If  the  former,  the  seed  should  be  sown  in  February  or 
March  in  a  temperature  of  not  less  than  60°.  The  seedlings  should  be 
potted  when  about  four  to  six  leaves  have  grown,  in  a  rich  sandy  soil. 
Frequent  pottings  should  be  made  to  insure  a  rapid  growth,  making 
plants  large  enough  to  flower  by  fall.  Or  the  seedlings  may  be  planted 
out  in  the  border  when  danger  of  frost  is  over,  and  taken  up  in  the  fall 
before  frost;  these  plants  will  bloom  afl  winter.  About  one  half  of 
the  newer  growth  should  be  cut  off  when  they  are  taken  up,  as  they  are 
very  liable  to  spindle  up  when  grown  in  the  house.  When  grown  from 
cuttings,  young  wood  should  be  used,  which,  after  being  well  rooted, 
may  be  treated  in  the  same  way  as  the  seedlings. 

The  varieties  with  variegated  leaves  have  been  improved  until  the 
foliage  effects  are  equal  to  the  flowers  of  some  varieties;  and  these 
are  a  great  addition  to  the  conservatory  or  window  garden.  The  staple 
spotted-leaved  type  is  A.  Thompsoni.  A  compact  form,  now  much 
used  for  bedding  and  other  outdoor  work,  is  Savitzii,  which  is  a  horti- 
cultural variety,  not  a  distinct  species.  The  old-fashioned  green- 
leaved  A.  striatum,  from  which  A.  Thompsoni  has  probably  sprung,  is 
one  of  the  best.  A.  megapotamicum  or  vexillanum  is  a  trailing  or 
drooping  red-and-yellow-flowered  species  that  is  excellent  for  baskets, 
although  not  now  much  seen.  It  propagates  readily  from  seed. 
There  is  a  form  with  spotted  leaves. 

Abutilons  are  most  satisfactory  for  house  plants  when  they  are  not 
much  more  than  a  year  old.     They  need  no  special  treatment. 

Agapanthus,  or  African  lily  (Agapanthus  umbellatus  and  several 
varieties). — A  tuberous-rooted,  well-known  conservatory  or  window 
plant,  blooming  in  summer.  Excellent  for  porch  and  yard  decora- 
tion. 


352  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

It  lends  itself  to  many  conditions  and  proves  satisfactory  a  large 
part  of  the  year,  the  leaves  forming  a  green  arch  over  the  pot,  covering 
it  entirely  in  a  well-grown  specimen.  The  flowers  are  borne  in  a  large 
cluster  on  stems  growing  2-3  ft.  high,  as  many  as  two  or  three  hundred 
bright  blue  flowers  often  forming  on  a  single  plant.  A  large,  well-grown 
plant  throws  up  a  number  of  flower-stalks  through  the  early  season. 

The  one  essential  to  free  growth  is  an  abundance  of  water  and  an 
occasional  application  of  manure  water.  Propagation  is  effected  by 
division  of  the  offsets,  which  may  be  broken  from  the  main  plant  in 
early  spring.  After  flowering,  gradually  lessen  the  quantity  of  water 
until  they  are  placed  in  winter  quarters,  which  should  be  a  position 
free  from  frost  and  moderately  dry.  The  agapanthus,  being  a  heavy 
feeder,  should  be  grown  in  strong  loam  to  which  is  added  well-rotted 
manure  and  a  little  sand.  When  dormant,  the  roots  will  withstand  a 
little  frost. 

Alstremeria.  —  The  alstremerias  (of  several  species)  belong  to  the 
amaryllis  family,  being  tuberous-rooted  plants,  having  leafy  stems  ter- 
minating in  a  cluster  of  ten  to  fifty  small  lily-shaped  flowers  of  rich 
colors  in  summer. 

Most  of  the  alstremerias  should  be  given  pot  culture,  as  they  are 
easily  grown  and  are  not  hardy  in  the  open  in  the  North.  The  culture 
is  nearly  that  of  the  amaryllis,  —  a  good,  fibrous  loam  with  a  little  sand, 
potting  the  tubers  in  early  spring  or  late  fall.  Start  the  plants  slowly, 
giving  only  enough  water  to  cause  root  growth ;  but  after  growth  has 
become  established,  a  quantity  of  water  may  be  given.  After  flowering 
they  may  be  treated  as  are  amaryllis  or  agapanthus.  The  roots  may 
be  divided,  and  the  old  and  weak  parts  shaken  out.  The  plants  grow 
1-3  ft.  high.     The  flowers  often  have  odd  colors. 

Amaryllis.  —  The  popular  name  of  a  variety  of  house  or  conserva- 
tory tender  bulbs,  but  properly  applied  only  to  the  Belladonna  lily. 
Most  of  them  are  hippeastrums,  but  the  culture  of  all  is  similar.  They 
are  satisfactory  house  plants  for  spring  and  summer  bloom.  One 
difficulty  with  their  culture  is  the  habit  of  the  flower-stalk  starting  into 
growth  before  the  leaves  grow.  This  is  caused  in  most  cases  by  stimu- 
lating root  growth  before  the  bulb  has  had  sufficient  rest. 


AMARYLLIS  —  ANEMONE  353 

The  bulbs  should  be  dormant  four  or  five  months  in  a  dry  place  with 
a  temperature  of  about  50°.  When  wanted  to  be  brought  into  flower, 
the  bulbs,  if  to  be  repotted,  should  have  all  the  dirt  shaken  off  and 
potted  in  soil  composed  of  fibrous  loam  and  leafmold,  to  which  should 
be  added  a  little  sand.  If  the  loam  is  heavy,  place  the  pot  in  a  warm 
situation;  a  spent  hotbed  is  a  good  place.  Water  as  needed,  and  as 
the  flowers  develop  liquid  manure  may  be  given.  If  large  clumps  are 
well  established  in  8-  or  10-inch  pots,  they  may  be  top-dressed  with 
new  soil  containing  rotted  manure,  and  as  growth  increases  li([uid 
manure  may  be  given  twice  a  week  until  the  flowers  open.  After 
flowering,  gradually  withhold  water  until  the  leaves  die,  or  plunge 
the  pots  in  the  open,  in  a  sunny  place.  The  most  popular  species  for 
window-gardens  is  A.  Johnsoni  (properly  a  hippeastrum),  with  red 
flowers.     Figs.  257,  261. 

Bulbs  received  from  dealers  should  be  placed  in  pots  not  much 
broader  than  the  bulb,  and  the  neck  of  the  bulb  should  not  be  covered. 
Keep  rather  dry  until  active  growth  begins.  The  ripened  bulbs,  in  fall, 
may  be  stored  as  potatoes,  and  then  brought  out  in  spring  as  rapidly 
as  any  of  them  show  signs  of  growth. 

Anemone.  —  The  wind-flowers  are  hardy  perennials,  of  easy  culture, 
one  group  (the  Anemone  coronaria,  fulgens,  and  hortcnsis  forms)  being 
treated  as  bulbs.  These  tuberous-rooted  plants  should  be  planted 
late  in  September  or  early  in  October,  in  a  well-enriched  sheltered 
border,  setting  the  tubers  3  in.  deep  and  4-6  in.  apart.  The 
surface  of  the  border  should  be  mulched  with  leaves  or  strawy  manure 
through  the  severe  winter  weather,  uncovering  the  soil  in  March.  The 
flowers  will  appear  in  April  or  May,  and  in  June  or  July  the  tubers 
should  be  taken  up  and  placed  in  dry  sand  until  the  following  fall. 
These  plants  are  not  as  well  known  as  they  should  be.  The  range  of 
color  is  very  wide.  The  flowers  are  often  2  in.  across,  and  are 
lasting.  The  tubers  may  be  planted  in  pots,  bringing  them  into  the 
conservatory  or  house  at  intervals  through  the  winter,  where  they  make 
an  excellent  showing  when  in  bloom. 

The  Japanese  anemone  is  a  wholly  different  plant  from  the  above. 
There  are  white-flowered  and  red-flowered  varieties.  The  best  known 
is  A.  Japonica  var.  alba,  or  Ilonorine  Jobert.  This  species  blooms 
2a 


354  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

from  August  to  November,  and  is  at  that  season  the  finest  of  bordel 
plants.  The  pure  white  flowers,  with  lemon-colored  stamens,  are  held 
well  up  on  stalks  2-3  ft.  high.  The  flower-stems  are  long  and  ex- 
cellent for  cutting.  This  species  may  be  propagated  by  division  of  the 
plants  or  by  seed.  The  former  method  should  be  employed  in  the 
spring;  the  latter,  as  soon  as  the  seeds  are  ripe  in  the  fall.  Sow  the 
seed  in  boxes  in  a  warm,  sheltered  situation  in  the  border  or  under 
glass.  The  seed  should  be  covered  lightly  with  soil  containing  a  quan- 
tity of  sand  and  not  allowed  to  become  dry.  A  well-enriched,  sheltered 
position  in  a  border  should  be  given. 

The  httie  wild  wind-flowers  are  easily  colonized  in  a  hardy  border. 

Aralia,  A.  Sieholdii  (properly  Fatsia  Japonica  and  F.  papyrifera) ,  as 
it  is  sometimes  called,  and  the  variety  variegata,  with  large,  palmlike 
leaves,  are  grown  for  their  tropical  appearance. 

Sow  in  February,  in  shallow  trays  and  light  soil,  in  a  temperature 
of  65°.  Continue  the  temperature.  When  two  or  three  leaves  have 
formed,  transplant  into  other  trays  1  in.  apart.  Sprinkle  them  with 
a  fine  rose  or  spray;  and  do  not  allow  them  to  suffer  for  water.  Later 
transfer  them  to  small  pots  and  repot  them  as  they  grow.  Plant  out 
in  beds  after  the  weather  has  become  warm  and  settled.  Half-hardy 
perennials  in  the  North,  becoming  3  ft.  or  more  high;  a  shrub  in  the 
South  and  in  California.     Used  often  in  sul^tropical  work. 

Araucaria,  or  Norfolk  Island  pine,  is  now  sold  in  pots  by  florists  as  a 
window  plant.  There  are  several  species.  The  greenhouse  specimens 
are  the  juvenile  state  of  plants  that  become  large  trees  in  their  native 
regions;  therefore,  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  they  will  keep  shapely 
and  within  bounds  indefinitely. 

The  common  species  (A.  excelsa)  makes  a  symmetrical  evergreen 
subject.  It  keeps  well  in  a  cool  window,  or  on  the  veranda  in  the 
summer.  Protect  it  from  direct  sunlight,  and  give  plenty  of  room. 
If  the  plant  begins  to  fail,  return  it  to  the  florist  for  recuperation,  or 
procure  a  new  plant. 

Auricula.  —  A  half-hardy  perennial  of  the  primrose  tribe  ( Prwiula 
Auricula),  very  popular  in  Europe,  but  little  grown  in  America  on 
account  of  the  hot,  dry  summers. 


AZALEAS  355 

In  this  country  auriculas  are  usually  propagated  by  seed,  as  for 
cineraria;  but  special  varieties  are  perpetuated  by  olTsets.  Seeds 
sown  in  February  or  March  should  give  blooming  plants  for  the  next 
February  or  March.  Keep  the  plants  cool  and  moist,  and  away  from 
the  direct  sun  during  the  summer.  Gardeners  usually  grow  them  in 
frames.  In  the  fall,  they  are  potted  into  3-in.  or  4-in.  pots,  and 
made  to  bloom  either  in  frames  as  for  violets  or  in  a  cool  conservatory 
or  greenhouse.  In  April,  after  blooming  has  ceased,  repot  the  plants 
and  treat  as  the  previous  year.  As  with  most  annual-blooming  peren- 
nials, best  results  are  to  be  expected  with  year-old  or  two-year-old 
plants.  Auriculas  grow  6-S  in.  high.  Colors  white  and  many  shades 
of  red  and  blue. 

Azaleas  are  excellent  outdoor  and  greenhouse  shrubs,  and  are  some- 
times seen  in  windows.  They  are  less  grown  in  this  country  than  in 
Europe,  largely  because  of  our  hot,  dry  summers  and  severe  winters. 

There  are  two  common  types  or  classes  of  azaleas:  the  hardy  or 
Ghent  azaleas,  and  the  Indian  azaleas.  The  latter  are  the  familiar 
large-flowered  azaleas  of  conservatories  and  window-gardens. 

Ghent  azaleas  thrive  in  the  open  along  the  seacoast  as  far  north 
as  southern  New  England.  They  require  a  sandy  peaty  soil,  but  are 
treated  as  other  shrubs  are.  The  large  flower-buds  are  liable  to  injury 
from  the  warm  suns  of  late  winter  and  early  spring,  and  to  avoid  this 
injury  the  plants  are  often  protected  by  covers  or  shades  of  brush.  In 
the  interior  country,  little  attempt  is  made  to  flower  azaleas  perma- 
nently  in  the  open,  although  they  may  be  grown  if  carefully  tended 
and  well  protected. 

Both  Ghent  and  Indian  azaleas  are  excellent  pot-plants  for  bloom 
in  late  winter  and  spring.  The  plants  are  imported  in  great  numbers 
from  Europe  in  fall,  and  it  is  better  to  buy  these  plants  than  to  attempt 
to  propagate  them.  Pot  them  up  in  large-sized  pots,  keep  them  cool 
and  backward  for  a  time  until  they  are  established,  then  take  them  into 
a  conservatory  temperature  in  which  carnations  and  roses  thrive. 
They  should  be  potted  in  a  soil  of  half  peat  or  well-decayed  mold  and 
half  rich  loam;  add  a  little  sand.  Pot  firmly,  and  be  sure  to  provide 
sufficient  drainage.     Keep  off  red  spider  by  syringing. 

After  blooming,  the  plants  may  be  thinned  by  pruning  out  the 


356  MANUAL    OF  GARDENING 

straggling  growths,  and  repotted.  Set  them  in  a  frame  or  in  a  semi- 
shaded  place  during  summer,  and  see  that  they  make  a  good  growth. 
The  wood  should  be  well  ripened  in  the  fall.  After  cold  weather  sets 
in,  keep  the  Indian  or  evergreen  kinds  half  dormant  by  setting  them 
in  a  cool,  dull-lighted  cellar  or  pit,  bringing  them  in  when  wanted  for 
bloom.  The  Ghent  or  deciduous  kinds  may  be  touched  with  frost 
without  injury;  and  they  may  be  kept  in  a  cellar  until  wanted. 

Begonias  are  familiar  tender  bedding  and  house  plants.  Next  to 
the  geranium,  begonias  are  probably  the  most  popular  for  house  cul- 
ture of  the  entire  plant  list.  The  ease  of  culture,  great  variety  of  kinds, 
profusion  of  bloom  or  richness  of  foliage,  together  with  their  adap- 
tability to  shade,  make  them  very  desirable. 

Begonias  may  be  divided  into  three  sections:  the  fibrous-rooted 
class,  which  contains  the  winter-flowering,  branching  kinds;  the  rex 
forms,  or  beefsteak  geraniums,  having  large  ornamental  leaves;  the 
tuberous-rooted,  those  that  bloom  through  the  summer,  the  tuber  rest- 
ing in  the  winter. 

The  fibrous-rooted  kinds  may  be  propagated  by  seed  or  cuttings,  the 
latter  being  the  usual  method.  Cuttings  of  half-ripened  wood  root 
easily,  making  a  rapid  growth,  the  plants  flowering  in  a  few  months. 

The  rex  type,  having  no  branches,  is  propagated  from  the  leaves. 
The  large  mature  leaves  are  used.  The  leaf  may  be  cut  into  sections, 
having  at  the  base  a  union  of  two  ribs.  These  pieces  of  leaves  may 
be  inserted  in  the  sand  as  any  other  cutting.  Or  a  whole  leaf  may  be 
used,  cutting  through  the  ribs  at  intervals  and  laying  the  leaf  flat  on 
the  propagating  bench  or  other  warm,  moist  place.  In  a  short  time 
young  plants  having  roots  of  their  own  will  form.  These  may  be  potted 
when  large  enough  to  handle,  and  will  soon  make  good  plants  (Fig  125). 

Rex  begonias  usually  grow  little  during  winter,  and  they  should 
therefore  be  kept  fairly  dry  and  no  effort  made  to  push  them.  Be  sure 
that  the  pots  are  well  drained,  so  that  the  soil  does  not  become  sour. 
New  plants  —  those  a  year  or  so  old  —  are  usually  most  satisfactory. 
Keep  them  away  from  direct  sunlight.  An  insidious  disease  of  rex 
begonia  leaves  has  recently  made  its  appearance.  The  best  treatment 
yet  known  is  to  propagate  fresh  plants,  throwing  away  the  old  stock 
and  the  dirt  in  which  it  is  grown. 


BEGONIAS  357 

The  tuberous-rooted  begonias  make  excellent  bedding  plants  for 
those  who  learn  their  simple  but  imperative  requirements.  They 
are  also  good  pot  subjects  for  summer. 

The  amateur  would  better  not  attempt  to  grow  the  tuberous  bego- 
nias from  seed.  He  should  purchase  good  two-year  tubers.  These 
should  be  able  to  run  for  two  or  three  years  before  they  are  so  old  or 
so  much  spent  that  they  give  unsatisfactory  results. 

In  the  North,  the  tubers  are  started  indoors,  for  bedding,  in  February 
or  early  March  in  a  rather  warm  temperature.  They  will  fill  a  five-inch 
pot  before  they  are  ready  to  be  turned  out  into  the  ground.  They 
should  not  be  planted  out  till  the  weather  is  thoroughly  settled,  for 
they  will  not  stand  frost  or  unfavorable  climatic  conditions. 

The  plants  should  be  given  a  soil  that  holds  moisture,  but  is  yet 
well  drained.  They  will  not  do  well  in  water-logged  ground.  They 
should  have  partial  shade ;  near  the  north  side  of  a  building  is  a  good 
place  for  them.  Too  much  watering  makes  them  soft  and  they  tend 
to  break  down.  Keep  the  foliage  dry,  particularly  in  sunny  weather; 
the  watering  should  be  done  from  underneath. 

After  blooming,  lift  the  bulbs,  dry  them  off,  and  keep  over  winter 
in  a  cool  place.  They  may  be  packed  in  shallow  boxes  in  dry  earth 
or  sand. 

Florists  sometimes  divide  the  tubers  just  after  growth  starts  in  the 
spring,  so  that  a  good  eye  may  be  got  with  each  plant;  but  the  ama- 
teur would  better  use  the  entire  tuber,  unless  he  desires  to  increase 
or  multiply  some  particular  plant. 

If  the  house  gardener  desires  to  raise  tuberous  begonias  from  seed, 
he  must  be  prepared  to  exercise  much  patience.  The  seeds,  like  those 
of  all  begonias,  are  very  small,  and  should  be  sown  with  great  care. 
Start  the  seeds  in  late  winter.  Simply  sprinkle  them  on  the  surface  of 
the  soil,  which  should  be  a  mixture  of  leafmold  and  sand,  with  the 
addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  fibrous  loam.  Watering  should  be  done 
by  setting  the  pot  or  box  in  which  the  seeds  are  sown  in  water,  allow- 
ing the  moisture  to  ascend  through  the  soil.  When  the  soil  has  become 
completely  saturated,  set  the  box  in  a  shady  situation,  covering  it  with 
glass  or  some  other  object  until  the  tiny  seedlings  appear.  Never 
allow  the  soil  to  become  dry.  The  seedlings  should  be  transplanted, 
as  soon  as  they  can  be  handled,  into  boxes  or  pots  containing  the 


358  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

same  mixture  of  soil,  setting  each  plant  down  to  the  seed-leaf.  They 
will  need  three  or  four  transplantings  before  they  reach  the  blooming 
stage,  and  at  each  one  after  the  first,  the  proportion  of  fibrous  loam 
may  be  increased  until  the  soil  is  composed  of  one-third  each  of  loam, 
sand,  and  leafmold.  The  addition  of  a  little  well-rotted  manure  may 
be  made  at  the  last  transplanting. 

Cactus.  —  Various  kinds  of  cactus  are  often  seen  in  small  collections 
of  house  plants,  to  which  they  add  interest  and  oddity,  being  different 
from  other  plants. 

Most  cacti  are  easy  to  grow,  requiring  little  care  and  enduring  the 
heat  and  dryness  of  a  living  room  much  better  than  most  other  plants. 
Their  requirements  are  ample  drainage  and  open  soil.  Cactus  growers 
usually  make  a  soil  by  mixing  pulverized  plaster  or  lime  refuse  with 
garden  loam,  using  about  two-thirds  of  the  loam.  The  very  fine  parts, 
or  dust,  of  the  plaster,  are  blown  out,  else  the  soil  is  likely  to  cement. 
They  may  be  rested  at  any  season  by  simply  setting  them  away  in  a  dry 
place  for  two  or  three  months,  and  bringing  them  into  heat  and  light 
when  they  are  wanted.  As  new  growth  advances  they  should  have 
water  occasionally,  and  when  in  bloom,  they  should  be  watered  freely. 
Withhold  water  gradually  after  blooming  until  they  are  to  be  rested. 

Some  of  the  most  common  species  in  cultivation  are  the  phyllo- 
cactus  species,  often  called  the  night-blooming  cereus.  These  are  not 
the  true  night-blooming  cereuses,  which  have  angular  or  cylindrical 
stems,  covered  with  bristles,  while  these  have  flat,  leaf-like  branches; 
the  flowers  of  these,  however,  are  very  much  like  the  cereus,  opening 
at  evening  and  closing  before  morning,  and  as  the  phyllocacti  may  be 
grown  with  greater  ease,  blooming  on  smaller  and  younger  plants,  they 
are  to  be  recommended. 

The  true  night-blooming  cereuses  are  species  of  the  genus  Cereus. 
The  commonest  one  is  C.  nycticalus,  but  C.  grandiflorus,  C.  triangu- 
laris and  others  are  occasionally  seen.  These  plants  all  have  long 
rod-hke  stems  which  are  cylindrical  or  angular.  These  stems  often 
reach  a  height  of  10  to  30  ft.,  and  they  need  support.  They 
should  be  trained  along  a  pillar  or  tied  to  a  stake.  They  are  unin- 
teresting leafless  things  during  a  large  part  of  the  year;  but  in  mid- 
summer, after  they  are  three  or  more  years  old,  they  throw  out  their 


CACTUS— CALADIUM  359 

great  tubular  flowers,  which  open  at  nightfall  and  wither  and  die  when 
the  hght  strikes  them  next  morning.  They  are  very  easily  grown, 
either  in  pots  or  planted  in  the  natural  soil  in  the  conservatory.  The 
only  special  care  they  need  is  good  drainage  at  the  roots,  so  that  the 
soil  will  not  become  soggy. 

The  epiphyllum,  or  lobster  cactus,  or  crab  cactus,  is  one  of  the  best 
of  the  family,  easy  of  culture.  It  bears  bright-colored  blossoms  at 
the  end  of  each  joint.  When  in  flower,  which  will  be  in  the  winter 
months,  it  requires  a  richer  soil  than  the  other  cacti.  A  suitable  soil 
is  made  of  two- thirds  fibrous  loam  and  one  third  leaf  mold;  usually  it 
is  best  to  add  sand  or  pulverized  brick.  In  fall  and  early  winter,  keep 
rather  dry,  giving  more  water  as  the  plant  comes  into  bloom. 

Opuntias,  or  prickly  pears,  are  often  grown  as  border  plants  through 
the  summer.  In  fact,  all  the  family  may  be  planted  out,  and  if  a  num- 
ber of  kinds  are  set  in  a  bed  together,  they  make  a  striking  addition 
to  the  garden.  Be  very  careful  not  to  bruise  the  plants.  It  is  better 
to  plunge  them  in  the  pots  than  to  turn  them  out  of  the  pots. 

Caladium.  —  Tuberous-rooted,  tender  perennial  plants  used  for 
conservatory  decoration,  and  also  for  subtropical  and  bold  effects  in 
the  lawn  (Plate  IV).  The  plants  commonly  known  under  this  name 
are  really  colocasias. 

The  roots  should  be  dormant  in  the  winter,  being  kept  in  a  warm 
cellar  or  under  a  greenhouse  bench,  where  they  are  not  liable  to  frost 
or  dampness.  The  roots  are  usually  covered  with  earth,  but  they 
are  kept  dry.  Early  in  spring  the  roots  are  put  into  boxes  or  pots  and 
are  started  into  growth,  so  that  by  the  time  settled  weather  comes 
they  will  be  1  or  2  feet  high  and  ready  to  set  directly  into  soil. 

When  set  out  of  doors,  they  should  be  protected  from  strong  winds, 
and  from  the  full  glare  of  direct  sunlight.  The  soil  should  be  rich  and 
deep,  and  the  plants  should  have  an  abundance  of  water.  They  do 
well  about  ponds  (see  Plate  X). 

Caladiums  are  most  excellent  plants  for  striking  effects,  especially 
against  a  house,  high  shrubbery,  or  other  background.  If  they  are 
planted  by  themselves,  they  should  be  in  clumps  rather  than  scattered 
as  single  specimens,  as  the  effect  is  better.  See  that  they  get  a  good 
start  before  they  are  planted  in  the  open  ground.     As  soon  as  killed 


360  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

down  by  frost,  dig  them,  dry  the  roots  of  superfluous  moisture,  and 
store  till  wanted  in  late  winter  or  spring. 

Calceolaria.  —  The  calceolarias  are  small  greenhouse  herbs  some- 
times used  in  the  window-garden.  They  are  not  very  satisfactory 
plants  for  window  treatment,  however,  since  they  suffer  from  dry 
atmosphere  and  from  sudden  changes  of  temperature. 

The  calceolarias  are  grown  from  seeds.  If  the  seeds  are  sown  in 
early  summer  and  the  young  plants  are  transplanted  as  they  need, 
flowering  specimens  may  be  had  for  the  late  fall  and  early  winter.  In 
the  growing  of  the  young  plants,  always  avoid  exposing  them  to  direct 
sunlight;  but  they  should  be  given  a  place  that  has  an  abundance  of 
screened  or  tempered  light.  A  new  crop  of  plants  should  be  raised 
each  year. 

There  is  a  race  of  shrubby  calceolarias,  but  it  is  little  known  in  this 
country.  One  or  two  species  are  annuals  adaptable  to  cultivation  in 
the  open  garden,  and  their  little  ladyslipper-like  flowers  are  attractive. 
However,  they  are  of  secondary  importance  as  annual  garden  flowers. 

Calla  (properly  Richardia),  Egyptian  Hly.  —  The  calla  is  one  of 
the  most  satisfactory  of  winter  house-plants,  lending  itself  to  various 
conditions. 

The  requirements  of  the  calla  are  rich  soil  and  an  abundance  of 
waterj  with  the  roots  confined  in  as  small  a  space  as  possible.  If  a 
too  large  pot  is  used,  the  growth  of  foliage  will  be  very  rank,  at  the 
expense  of  the  flowers ;  but  by  using  a  smaller-sized  pot  and  applying 
liquid  manure,  the  flowers  will  be  produced  freely.  A  6-inch  pot  will 
be  large  enough  for  all  but  an  exceptionally  large  bulb  or  tuber.  If 
desired,  a  number  of  tubers  may  be  grown  together  in  a  larger  pot. 
The  soil  should  be  very  rich  but  fibrous  —  at  least  one  third  well-rotted 
manure  will  be  none  too  much,  mixed  with  equal  parts  of  fibrous  loam 
and  sharp  sand.  The  tubers  should  be  planted  firmly  and  the  pots 
set  in  a  cool  place  to  make  roots.  After  the  roots  have  partially  filled 
the  pot,  the  plant  may  be  brought  into  heat  and  given  a  sunny  position 
and  an  abundance  of  water.  An  occasional  sponging  or  washing  of 
the  leaves  will  free  them  from  dust.  No  other  treatment  will  be  re- 
quired until  the  flowers  appear,  when  liquid  manure  may  be  given. 


CALLA  —  CAMELLIAS  —  CA^'NAS  361 

The  plant  will  thrive  all  the  better  at  this  time  if  the  pot  is  placed 
in  a  saucer  of  water.  In  fact,  the  calla  will  grow  well  in  an 
aquarium. 

The  calla  may  be  grown  through  the  entire  year,  but  it  will  prove 
more  satisfactory,  both  in  leaf  and  flower,  if  rested  through  part  of  the 
summer.  This  may  be  done  by  laying  the  pots  on  their  sides  in  a  dry 
shady  place  under  shrubbery,  or  if  in  the  opiin  slightly  covered  with 
straw  or  other  Htter  to  keep  the  roots  from  becoming  extremely  dry. 
In  September  or  October  they  may  be  shaken  out,  cleaning  off  all  the 
old  soil,  and  repotted,  as  already  mentioned.  The  offsets  may  be 
taken  off  and  set  in  small  pots  and  given  a  year's  growth,  resting  them 
the  second  year  and  having  them  in  flower  that  winter. 

The  spotted  calla  has  variegated  foliage  and  is  a  good  plant  for  mixed 
collections.  This  blooms  in  the  spring,  which  will  lengthen  the  season 
of  calla  bloom.  The  treatment  of  this  is  similar  to  that  of  the  com- 
mon calla. 

Camellias  are  half-hardy  woody  plants,  blooming  in  late  winter  and 
spring.  Years  ago  camellias  were  very  popular,  but  they  have  been 
crowded  out  by  the  informal  flowers  of  recent  times.  Their  time  will 
come  again. 

During  the  blooming  season  keep  them  cool  —  say  not  over  50°  at 
night  and  a  little  higher  by  day.  When  blooming  is  done  they  begin 
to  grow;  then  give  them  more  heat  and  plenty  of  water.  See  that  they 
are  well  ripened  by  winter  with  large  plump  flower-buds.  If  they 
are  neglected  or  kept  too  dry  during  their  growing  season  (in  summer) 
they  will  drop  their  buds  in  fall.  The  soil  for  camellias  should  be 
fibrous  and  fertile,  compounded  of  rotted  sod,  leafmold,  old  cow 
manure,  and  sufficient  sand  for  good  drainage.  Always  screen  them 
from  direct  sunlight.  Do  not  try  to  force  them  in  early  winter,  after 
the  growth  has  ceased.  Their  summer  quarters  may  be  in  a  pro- 
tected place  in  the  open  air. 

CameUias  are  propagated  by  cuttings  in  winter,  which  should  give 
blooming,  plants  in  two  years. 

Cannas  are  among  the  most  ornamental  and  important  plants  used 
in  decorative  gardening.     They  make  fine  herbaceous  hedges,  groups, 


362  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

masses,  and  —  when  desirable  —  good  center  plants  for  beds.     They 
are  much  used  for  subtropical  effects  (see  Plate  V). 

Cannas  grow  3  to  10  feet  or  more  high.  Formerly  they  were 
valued  chiefly  for  their  foliage,  but  since  the  introduction,  in  1884,  of 
the  Crozy  Dwarf  French  type  with  its  showy  flowers,  cannas  are 
grown  as  much  for  their  bloom  as  for  their  foliage  effects.  The  flowers 
of  these  new  kinds  are  as  large  as  those  of  gladioli,  and  are  of  various 
shades  of  yellow  and  red,  with  banded  and  spotted  forms.  These 
flowering  kinds  grow  about  3  feet  high.  The  older  forms  are  taller. 
In  both  sections  there  are  green-leaved  and  dark  coppery-red-leaved 
varieties. 

The  canna  may  be  grown  from  seed  and  had  in  bloom  the  first  year 
by  sowing  in  February  or  March,  in  boxes  or  pots  placed  in  hotbeds 
or  a  warm  house,  first  soaking  the  seeds  in  warm  water  for  a  short  time 
or  filing  a  small  notch  through  the  coat  of  each  seed  (avoiding  the 
round  germinating  point).  It  requires  two  years  to  raise  strong  plants 
of  the  old-fashioned  tall  cannas  from  seed.  Sow  in  light,  sandy  soil, 
where  the  earth  may  be  kept  at  70°  till  after  germination.  After  the 
plants  have  got  well  up,  transplant  them  to  about  3  or  4  inches  apart, 
or  place  in  pots  3  inches  wide,  in  good  rich  soil.  They  may  now 
be  kept  at  60°. 

The  majority  of  cannas,  however,  are  grown  from  pieces  of  the 
roots  (rhizomes),  each  piece  having  a  bud.  The  roots  may  be  divided 
at  any  time  in  the  winter,  and  if  early  flowers  and  foliage  are  wanted, 
the  pieces  may  be  planted  in  a  hotbed  or  warmhouse  in  early  April, 
started  into  growth,  and  planted  out  where  wanted  as  soon  as  the 
ground  has  warmed  and  all  danger  of  frost  is  over.  A  hardening  of 
the  plants,  by  leaving  the  sash  off  the  hotbeds,  or  setting  the  plants  in 
shallow  boxes  and  placing  the  boxes  in  a  sheltered  position  through 
May,  not  forgetting  a  liberal  supply  of  water,  will  fit  the  plants  to  take 
kindly  to  the  final  planting  out. 

Plant  out  roots  or  started  plants  when  there  is  no  longer  danger  of 
frost.  For  mass  effects,  the  plants  may  stand  twelve  to  eighteen  inches 
apart;  for  individual  bloom  twenty  to  twenty-four  inches  or  more. 
Some  gardeners  plant  them  not  closer  than  twenty  to  twenty-four 
inches  for  mass  beds,  if  the  soil  is  good  and  the  plants  strong.  Give 
them  a  warm  sunny  place. 


CANNA  S  —  CA  RNA  TIONS  363 

The  old  (foliage)  sorts  may  be  left  out  late  to  ripen  up  the  fleshy 
root-stocks.  Cut  the  tops  off  immediately  after  frost.  The  roots  are 
safe  in  the  ground  as  long  as  it  does  not  freeze.  Dig,  and  dry  or 
''cure"  for  a  few  days,  then  winter  them  hke  potatoes  in  the  cellar. 
It  is  a  common  mistake  to  dig  canna  roots  too  early. 

The  French  sorts  are  commonly  thought  to  keep  best  if  kept  grow- 
ing somewhat  during  the  winter;  but  if  managed  right,  they  may  be 
carried  over  like  the  others.  Immediately  after  frost,  cut  off  the  tops 
next  the  ground.  Cover  the  stumps  with  a  little  soil  and  leave  the 
roots  in  the  ground  till  well  ripened.  Clean  them  after  digging,  and 
cure  or  dry  them  for  a  week  or  more  in  the  open  air  and  sun,  taking  them 
indoors  at  night.  Then  place  them  away  from  frost  in  a  cool,  dry 
place. 

Carnations  are  now  among  the  most  popular  florists'  flowers;  but 
it  is  not  generally  known  that  thoy  may  be  easily  grown  in  the  outdoor 
garden.  They  are  of  two  types,  the  outdoor  or  garden  varieties,  and 
the  indoor  or  forcing  kinds.  Normally,  the  carnation  is  a  hardy  peren- 
nial, but  the  garden  kinds,  or  marguerites,  are  usually  treated  as 
annuals.  The  forcing  kinds  are  flowered  but  once,  new  plants  being 
grown  each  year  from  cuttings. 

Marguerite  carnations  bloom  the  year  the  seed  is  sown,  and  with  a 
slight  protection  will  bloom  freely  the  second  year.  They  make  at- 
tractive house  plants  if  potted  in  the  fall.  The  seeds  of  these  carna- 
tions should  be  sown  in  boxes  in  March  and  the  young  plants  set  out 
as  early  as  possible,  pinching  out  the  center  of  the  plant  to  make  them 
branch  freely.     Give  the  same  space  as  for  garden  pinks. 

The  winter-flowering  carnations  have  become  prime  favorites  with 
all  flower  lovers,  and  a  collection  of  winter  house-plants  seems  incom- 
plete without  them. 

Carnations  grow  readily  from  cuttings  made  of  the  suckers  that 
form  around  the  base  of  the  stem,  the  side  shoots  of  the  flowering 
stem,  or  the  main  shoots  before  they  show  flower-buds.  The  cuttings 
from  the  base  make  the  best  plants  in  most  cases.  These  cuttings 
may  be  taken  from  a  plant  at  any  time  through  the  fall  or  winter,  rooted 
in  sand  and  potted  up,  to  be  held  in  pots  until  the  planting  out  time 
in  the  spring,  usually  in  April,  or  any  time  when  the  ground  is  ready  to 


364  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

handle.  Care  should  be  taken  to  pinch  out  the  tops  of  the  young 
plants  while  growing  in  the  pot,  and  later  while  in  the  ground,  causing 
them  to  grow  stocky  and  send  out  new  growths  along  the  stem.  The 
young  plants  should  be  grown  cool,  a  temperature  of  45°  suiting  them 
well.  Attention  should  be  given  to  spraying  the  cuttings  each  day 
while  in  the  house  to  keep  down  the  red  spider,  which  is  very  partial 
to  the  carnation. 

In  the  summer,  the  plants  are  grown  in  the  field,  and  not  in  pots, 
being  transplanted  from  the  cutting-box.  The  soil  in  which  they  are 
to  be  planted  should  be  moderately  rich  and  loose.  Clean  cultivation 
should  be  given  throughout  the  summer.  Frequently  pinch  out  the 
tops. 

The  plants  are  taken  up  in  September  and  potted  firmly,  and  well 
watered;  then  set  in  a  cool,  partially  shaded  situation  until  root  growth 
has  started,  and  watering  the  plant  as  it  shows  need  of  water. 

The  usual  living-room  conditions  as  to  moisture  and  heat  are  not 
such  as  the  carnation  demands,  and  care  must  be  taken  to  overcome 
the  dryness  by  spraying  the  foliage  and  setting  the  plant  in  a  position 
not  exposed  to  the  direct  heat  of  a  stove  or  the  sun.  In  commercial 
houses,  it  is  not  often  necessary  to  spray  established  plants.  Pick  off 
most  or  all  of  the  side  buds,  in  order  to  add  to  the  size  of  the  leading 
flowers.  After  all  is  said,  it  is  probably  advisable  in  most  cases  to 
purchase  the  plants  when  in  bloom  from  a.  florist,  and  after  blooming 
either  throw  them  away  or  store  them  for  planting  out  in  the  spring, 
when  they  will  bloom  throughout  the  summer. 

If  conditions  are  right,  the  rust  should  not  be  very  troublesome,  if 
the  start  was  made  with  clean  stock.     Keep  all  rusted  leaves  picked  off. 

Century  plants  or  agaves  are  popular  plants  for  the  window-garden 
or  conservatory,  requiring  little  care  and  growing  slowly,  thus  needing 
repotting  only  at  long  intervals.  When  the  plants  have  outgrown 
their  usefulness  as  house-plants,  they  are  still  valuable  as  porch  deco- 
rations, for  plunging  in  rock- work,  or  about  rustic  nooks.  The  striped- 
leaved  variety  is  the  most  desirable,  but  the  normal  type,  with  its  blue- 
gray  leaves,  is  highly  ornamental. 

There  are  a  number  of  dwarf  species  of  agave  that  are  not  so  com- 
mon, although  they  may  be  grown  with  ease.     Such  plants  add  novelty 


CENTUR Y  PLANTS  —  CHR YSANTHEMUMS  365 

to  a  collection,  and  may  be  used  through  the  summer  as  noted  above 
or  plunged  with  cactus  in  a  bed  of  tropical  plants.  All  succeed  well  in 
loam  and  sand  in  equal  parts,  with  a  little  leafmold  in  the  case  of  the 
small  varieties. 

The  more  common  species  are  propagated  by  suckers  from  around 
the  base  of  the  established  plants.  A  few  kinds  having  no  suckers 
must  be  grown  from  seed. 

As  to  watering,  they  demand  no  special  care.  Agaves  will  not 
stand  frost  to  any  extent. 

When  the  head  throws  up  its  great  stem  and  blooms,  it  may  ex- 
haust itself  and  die;  but  this  may  be  far  short  of  a  century.  Some 
species  bloom  more  than  once. 

Chrysanthemums  are  of  many  kinds,  some  being  annual  flower- 
garden  plants,  some  perennial  border  subjects,  and  one  form  is  the 
universal  florists'  plant.  In  chrysanthemums  are  now  included  the 
pyrethrums. 

The  annual  chrysanthemums  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  well- 
known  fall-flowering  kinds,  as  they  will  prove  a  disappointment  if 
one  expects  large  flowers  of  all  colors  and  shapes.  The  annuals  are 
mostly  coarse-growing  plants,  with  an  abundance  of  bloom  and  a  rank 
smell.  The  flowers  are  single  in  most  cases,  and  not  very  lasting. 
They  are  useful  for  massing  and  also  for  cut-flowers.  They  are  among 
the  easiest  of  hardy  annuals  to  grow.  The  stoniest  part  of  the  garden 
will  usually  suit  them.  Colors  white  and  shades  of  yellow,  the  flowers 
daisy-like  ;  1-3  ft. 

Amongst  perennial  kinds,  Chrysanthemum  frutescens  is  the  well- 
known  Paris  daisy  or  marguerite,  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the  genus. 
This  makes  a  good  pot-plant  for  the  window-garden,  blooming  through- 
out the  winter  and  spring  months.  It  is  usually  propagated  by  cut- 
tings, which,  if  taken  in  spring,  will  give  large  blooming  plants  for  the 
next  winter.  Gradually  transfer  to  larger  pots  or  boxes,  until  the 
plants  finally  stand  in  6-inch  or  8-inch  pots  or  in  small  soap  boxes. 
There  is  a  fine  yellow-flowered  variety.  The  marguerite  daisy  is  much 
grown  out-of-doors  in  California. 

The  hardy  perennial  kinds  are  small-flowered,  late-blooming  plants, 
known   to   many   old    people    as    "artemisias."     Thev    have    been 


366  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

improved  of  late  years,  and  they  are  very  satisfactory  plants  of  easy 
culture.     The  plants  should  be  renewed  from  seed  every  year  or  two. 

In  variety  of  form  and  color,  and  in  size  of  bloom,  the  florists'  chrys- 
anthemum is  one  of  the  most  wonderful  of  plants.  It  is  a  late  autumn 
flower,  and  it  needs  little  artificial  heat  to  bring  it  to  perfection.  The 
great  blooms  of  the  exhibitions  are  produced  by  growing  only  one 
flower  to  a  plant  and  by  feeding  the  plant  heavily.  It  is  hardly  pos- 
sible for  the  amateur  to  grow  such  specimen  flowers  as  the  profes- 
sional florist  or  gardener  does;  neither  is  it  necessary.  A  well-grown 
plant  with  fourteen  to  twenty  flowers  is  far  more  satisfactory  as  a 
window-plant  than  a  long,  stiff  stem  with  only  one  immense  flower  at 
the  apex.  The  culture  is  simple,  much  more  so  than  that  of  many  of 
the  plants  commonly  grown  for  house  decoration.  Although  the 
season  of  bloom  is  short,  the  satisfaction  of  having  a  fall  display  of 
flowers  before  the  geraniums,  begonias,  and  other  house-plants  have 
recovered  from  their  removal  from  out  of  doors,  repays  all  efforts. 
Very  good  plants  can  be  grown  under  a  temporary  shed  cover,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  268.  The  roof  need  not  necessarily  be  of  glass.  Under  such 
a  cover,  also,  potted  plants,  in  bloom,  may  be  set  for  protection  when 
the  weather  becomes  too  cold. 

Cuttings  taken  in  March  or  April,  planted  out  in  the  border  in  May, 
well  tended  through  the  summer  and  lifted  before  frost  in  September, 
will  bloom  in  October  or  November.  The  ground  in  which  the  plants 
are  to  bloom  should  be  moderately  rich  and  moist.  The  plants  may  be 
tied  to  stakes.  When  the  buds  show,  all  but  the  center  one  of  each 
cluster  on  the  leading  shoots  should  be  picked  off,  as  also  the  small 
lateral  branches.  A  thrifty  bushy  plant  thus  treated  will  usually  have 
flowers  large  enough  to  show  the  character  of  the  variety,  also  num- 
bers enough  to  make  a  fine  display. 

After  blooming,  the  plants  are  lifted  from  the  border.  As  to  the  re- 
ceptacle into  which  to  put  them,  it  need  not  be  a  flower-pot.  A  pail 
or  soap-box,  with  holes  bored  for  drainage,  will  suit  the  plant  just  as 
well,  and  by  covering  the  box  with  cloth  or  paper  the  difference  will 
not  be  noticed. 

If  cuttings  are  not  to  be  had,  young  plants  may  be  bought  of  the 
florists  and  treated  in  the  manner  described.  Buy  them  in  midsummer 
or  earlier. 


CHR  YSA  N  THEM  UMS  —  CINERA  RIA  —  CLE  MA  TIS         367 

It  is  best  not  to  attempt  to  flower  the  same  plant  two  seasons. 
After  the  plant  has  bloomed,  the  top  may  be  cut  down,  and  the  box 
set  in  a  cellar  and  kept  moderately  dry.  In  February  or  March,  bring 
the  plant  to  the  sitting-room  window  and  let  the  shoots  start  from  the 
root.  These  shoots  are  taken  for  cuttings  to  grow  plants  for  the  fall 
bloom. 

Cineraria  is  a  tender  greenhouse  subject,  but  it  may  be  grown  as  a 
house-plant,  although  the  conditions  necessary  to  the  best  results  are 
difficult  to  secure  outside  a  glasshouse. 

The  conditions  for  cinerarias  are  a  cool  temperature,  frequent  re- 
potting, and  guarding  against  the  attacks  of  the  greenfly.  Perhaps  the 
last  is  the  most  difficult,  and  with  one  having  no  facilities  for  fumigat- 
ing, it  will  be  almost  impossible  to  prevent  the  difficulty.  A  living 
room  usually  has  too  dry  air  for  cinerarias. 

The  seed,  which  is  very  minute,  should  be  sown  in  August  or  Sep- 
tember to  have  plants  in  bloom  in  January  or  February.  Sow  the 
seed  on  the  surface  of  fine  soil  and  water  very  lightly  to  settle  the  seeds 
into  the  soil.  A  piece  of  glass  or  a  damp  cloth  may  be  spread  over  the 
pot  or  box  in  which  the  seeds  are  sown,  to  remain  until  the  seeds  are  up. 
Always  keep  the  soil  damp,  but  not  wet.  When  the  seedlings  are 
large  enough  to  repot,  they  should  be  potted  singly  in  2-  or  3-inch 
pots.  Before  the  plants  have  become  pot-bound,  they  should  again 
be  repotted  into  larger  pots,  until  they  are  in  at  least  6-inch  pots  in 
which  to  bloom. 

In  all  this  time,  they  should  be  grown  cool  and,  if  not  possible  to 
fumigate  them  with  tobacco,  the  pots  should  stand  on  tobacco  stems, 
which  should  be  moist  at  all  times.  The  general  practice,  in  order  to 
have  bushy  plants,  is  to  pinch  out  the  center  when  the  flower-buds 
show,  causing  the  lateral  branches  to  start,  which  they  are  slow  to  do 
if  the  central  stem  is  allowed  to  grow.     Plants  bloom  but  once. 

Clematis.  —  One  of  the  best  of  woody  climbing  vines,  the  common 
C.  Flammula,  Virginiana,  paniculata  and  others  being  used  frequently 
to  cover  division  walls  or  fences,  growing  year  after  year  without  any 
care  and  producing  quantities  of  flowers.  C.  paniculata  is  now  planted 
very  extensively.    The  panicles  of  star-shaped  flowers  entirely  cover 


368  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

the  vine  and  have  a  pleasant  fragrance.  It  is  one  of  the  bast  of  all 
fall-fiowering  vines,  and  hardy  north;  clings  well  to  a  chicken- wire 
treUis. 

The  large-flowered  section,  of  which  Jackmani  is  perhaps  the  best 
known,  is  very  popular  for  pillar  or  porch  climbers.  The  flowers  of 
this  section  are  large  and  showy,  running  from  pure  white,  through 
blue,  to  scarlet.  Of  this  class,  a  serviceable  purple  is  Jackmani;  white, 
Henryi  (Fig.  266);   blue,  Ramona;  crimson,  Madame  E.  Andre. 

A  deep,  mellow,  fertile  soil,  naturally  moist,  will  suit  the  require- 
ments of  clematis.  In  drj^  times  apply  water  freely,  particularly  for 
the  large-flowered  kinds.  Also  provide  trellis  or  other  support  as 
soon  as  they  begin  to  run.  Clematis  usually  blooms  on  the  wood  of 
the  season :  therefore  prune  in  winter  or  early  spring,  in  order  to  secure 
strong  new  flowering  shoots.  The  large-flowered  kinds  should  be  cut 
back  to  the  ground  each  year;  some  other  kinds  may  be  similarly 
treated  unless  they  are  wanted  for  permanent  bowers. 

The  clematis  root  disease  is  the  depredation  of  a  nematode  or  eel- 
worm.  It  is  seldom  troublesome  in  ground  that  thoroughly  freezes, 
and  this  may  be  the  reason  why  it  so  often  fails  when  planted  against 
buildings. 

Coleus.  —  The  commonest  "  foliage  plant  "  in  window-gardens.  It 
was  used  very  extensively  at  one  time  in  ornamental  bedding  and 
ribbon  borders,  but  owing  to  its  being  tender  has  lost  in  favor,  and  its 
place  is  largely  taken  by  other  plants. 

Coleus  is  grown  with  the  greatest  ease  from  cuttings  or  slips.  Take 
cuttings  only  from  vigorous  and  healthy  plants.  It  may  also  be  grown 
from  seed,  although  the  types  have  not  become  fixed,  and  a  large 
number  of  differently  marked  plants  may  be  had  from  the  same  packet. 
This  would  not  be  a  drawback  in  the  window-garden,  unless  a  uniform 
effect  is  desired;  in  fact,  the  best  results  are  often  secured  from  seeds. 
Sow  the  seed  in  gentle  heat  in  ]\Iarch. 

Grow  new  plants  each  year,  and  throw  the  old  ones  away. 

Crocus  (see  Bulbs,  p.  281).  —  Crocus  is  one  of  the  best  of  spring 
bulbs,  easily  grown  and  giving  good  satisfaction  either  in  the  border 
or  scattered  through  the  lawn.     They  are  also  forced  for  winter  (see 


CROCUS  — GROTON  369 

p.  345).  They  are  so  cheap  and  lasting  that  they  may  be  used  in 
quantity.  A  border  of  crocuses  along  the  edges  of  walks,  little  clumps 
of  them  in  the  lawn,  or  masses  in  a  bed,  give  the  first  touch  of  color 
as  the  spring  opens. 

A  sandy  soil  suits  the  crocus  admirably.  Plant  in  the  fall,  in  the 
open,  3  to  4  inches  deep.  When  they  show  signs  of  failing,  take  up 
the  bulbs  and  reset  them.  They  tend  to  rise  out  of  the  ground, 
because  the  new  bulb  or  corm  forms  on  the  top  of  the  old  one.  They 
run  out  on  lawns  in  two  or  three  years.  If  best  results  are  desired,  it 
is  well  to  renew  the  bed  occasionally  by  buying  new  bulbs.  Crocus 
beds  may  be  filled  later  in  the  season  with  quick-growing  annuals.  It 
is  important  that  only  the  best  flowering  bulbs  be  secured. 

They  may  be  forced  with  ease,  planted  in  pots  or  shallow  boxes,  put 
away  in  a  cool  place  and  brought  into  the  house  at  any  time  through 
the  winter.  A  low  temperature  will  bring  them  into  bloom  in  per- 
fection in  about  four  weeks  from  the  time  they  are  brought  in.  They 
can  be  had  in  the  window-garden  in  this  way,  opening  in  the  sunshine. 

Croton.  ^-  Under  this  name  many  varieties  and  so-called  species  of 
Codiseum  are  grown  for  conservatory  decoration,  and  latterly  for 
foliage  bedding  in  the  open.  The  colors  and  shapes  of  the  leaves  are 
very  various  and  attractive.  The  crotons  make  good  window-garden 
subjects,  although  they  are  very  liable  to  the  attack  of  the  mealy  bug. 

The  plants  should  be  given  an  abundance  of  light  in  order  to  bring 
out  their  fine  colors;  but  it  is  usually  advisable  to  screen  them  from 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  when  they  are  grown  under  glass.  If  the 
red  spider  or  the  mealy  bug  attack  them,  they  may  be  syringed  with 
tobacco  water.  Plants  that  are  propagated  indoors  in  winter  may 
be  massed  in  beds  out  of  doors  in  summer,  where  they  make  very 
striking  effects.  Give  them  strong  deep  soil,  and  be  sure  that  they  are 
syringed  frequently  enough  on  the  underside  of  the  leaves  to  keep  down 
the  red  spider.  If  the  plants  have  been  gradually  subjected  to  strong 
light  before  they  are  taken  out  of  doors,  they  will  stand  the  full  sun- 
light and  will  develop  their  rich  colors  to  perfection.  In  the  fall  they 
may  be  taken  up,  cut  back,  and  used  for  window-garden  or  conserva- 
tory subjects. 

Crotons  are  shrubs  or  small  trees,  and  they  may  be  transferred  into 
2b 


370  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

large  pots  or  tubs  and   grown  into   large  tree-like  specimens.     Old 
and  scraggly  specimens  should  be  thrown  away. 

Crotons  are  propagated  readily  by  cuttings  of  half -ripened  wood  any 
time  in  winter  or  spring. 

Cyclamen.  —  A  tender  greenhouse  tuberous  plant,  sometimes  seen 
in  the  window-garden.  The  Persian  cyclamen  is  best  for  the  house- 
gardener  to  grow. 

Cyclamens  may  be  grown  from  seed  sown  in  April  or  September  in 
soil  containing  a  large  proportion  of  sand  and  leafmold.  If  sown 
in  September,  they  should  be  wintered  in  a  coolhouse.  In  May  they 
should  be  potted  into  larger  pots  and  placed  in  a  shaded  frame,  and  by 
July  will  have  become  large  enough  for  their  flowering  pot,  which 
should  be  cither  5-inch  or  6-inch.  They  should  be  brought  into  the 
house  before  danger  of  frost,  and  grown  cool  until  through  flowering. 
A  temperature  of  55°  suits  them  while  in  flower.  After  flowering,  they 
will  need  a  rest  for  a  short  time,  but  should  not  become  very  dry,  or  the 
bulb  will  be  injured.  When  they  start  into  growth,  they  should  have 
the  old  soil  shaken  off  and  be  potted  into  smaller  pots.  At  no  time 
should  more  than  half  the  tuber  be  under  the  soil. 

April-sown  plants  should  be  similarly  treated.  Cyclamens  should 
bloom  in  about  fifteen  months  from  seed.  The  seed  germinates  very 
slowly. 

Tubers  large  enough  to  flower  the  first  year  may  be  purchased  from 
the  seedsmen  at  moderate  prices ;  and  unless  one  has  facilities  for  grow- 
ing the  seedlings  for  a  year,  purchase  of  the  tubers  will  give  the  best 
satisfaction.     Secure  new  tubers,  for  old  ones  are  not  so  good. 

The  soil  best  suited  to  the  cyclamen  is  one  containing  two  parts 
leafmold,  one  part  each  of  sand  and  loam. 

Dahlia  is  an  old  favorite  which,  on  account  of  its  formal  flowers, 
has  been  in  disfavor  for  a  few  years,  although  it  has  always  held  a  place 
in  the  rural  districts.  Now,  however,  with  the  advent  of  the  cactus 
and  semi-cactus  types  (or  loose-flowered  forms),  and  the  improve- 
ment of  the  singles,  it  again  has  taken  a  front  rank  among  late  sum- 
mer flowers,  coming  in  just  in  advance  of  the  chrysanthemum. 

The  single  varieties  may  be  grown  from  seed,  but  the  double  sorts 


XXIV. 


Pyracantha  in  fruit.      One  of  the  best  ornamental-fruited  plants  for 
the  middle  and  milder  latitudes. 


DAHLIA  371 

should  be  grown  from  cuttings  of  young  stems  or  from  division  of  the 
roots.  If  cuttings  are  to  be  made,  it  will  be  necessary  to  start  the  roots 
early,  either  in  a  hotbed  or  house.  When  the  growths  have  reached  4 
or  5  inches,  they  may  be  cut  from  the  plant  and  rooted  in  sand. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  cut  just  below  a  joint,  as  a  cutting  made 
between  two  joints  will  not  form  tubers.  The  most  rapid  method  of 
propagation  of  named  varieties  is  to  grow  from  cuttings  in  this  way. 

In  growing  the  plants  from  roots,  the  best  plan  is  to  place  the  whole 
root  in  gentle  heat,  covering  slightly.  When  the  young  growth  has 
started,  the  roots  may  be  taken  up,  divided,  and  planted  out  3  to 
4  feet  apart.  This  plan  will  insure  a  plant  from  each  piece  of  root, 
whereas  if  the  roots  are  divided  while  dormant,  there  is  danger  of  not 
having  a  bud  at  the  end  of  each  piece,  in  which  case  no  growth  will 
start  ;  the  roots  are  sometimes  cut  into  pieces  while  dormant,  however, 
but  one  should  be  sure  that  a  piece  of  old  stem  with  bud  is  on  each 
piece. 

One  objection  to  the  old  dahlia  was  its  lateness  of  bloom.  But  by 
starting  the  roots  early  in  a  frame,  or  in  boxes  that  are  covered  at 
night,  the  plants  may  be  had  in  flower  several  weeks  earlier  than  usual. 
They  may  be  started  in  April,  or  at  least  three  weeks  in  advance  of 
planting  time.  Little  water  will  be  required  till  they  start.  When 
they  begin  shooting  up,  the  plants  should  have  the  full  sun,  and  air, 
on  all  mild  days.  They  will  then  make  a  slow,  sturdy  growth.  All 
forcing  should  be  avoided.  These  plants,  set  out  when  there  is  no 
longer  danger  of  frost,  and  well  watered  before  completely  covering  the 
roots,  will  grow  right  on,  and  often  begin  blooming  in  July. 

Dormant  roots  may  be  set  out  in  INIay.  The  roots,  unless  small, 
should  be  divided  before  planting,  as  a  single  strong  root  is  usually 
better  than  a  whole  clum^D.  The  roots  of  all  but  the  Dwarf  should 
be  set  about  3  feet  apart,  in  rows.  In  poor  soils  none  but  the  first 
class  will  need  stakes. 

The  dahha  flourishes  best  in  a  deep,  loose,  moist  soil;  very  good 
results  can  be  had  on  sandy  soil,  provided  plant-food  and  moisture 
are  furnished.  Clay  should  be  avoided.  If  the  ground  is  too  strong, 
they  will  probably  bloom  too  late  for  the  northern  latitudes. 

If  the  plants  are  to  be  grown  without  stakes,  the  center  of  each  plant 
should  be  pinched  out  after  making  two  or  three  joints.     By  doing  this 


372  MANUAL   OF  GARDENING 

the  lateral  branches  will  start  near  the  ground  and  be  stiff  enough  to 
withstand  the  winds.  In  most  home  gardens  the  plants  are  allowed 
to  reach  their  full  height,  and  are  tied  to  stakes  if  necessary.  The 
tall  kinds  reach  a  height  of  5  to  8  ft. 

Dahlias  are  very  susceptible  to  frost.  After  the  first  frost,  lift  the 
roots,  let  them  dry  in  the  sun,  shake  off  the  dirt,  trim  off  tops  and 
broken  parts,  and  store  them  in  a  cellar,  as  for  potatoes.  They  may  be 
placed  in  barrels  of  sand,  if  the  open  cellar  is  not  usable.  Cannas  may 
be  stored  in  the  same  place. 

The  tree  dahlia  (D.  excelsa,  but  cultivated  as  D.  arhorea )  is  grown 
more  or  less  far  South  and  in  California.  It  has  not  been  much  im- 
proved. 

Ferns.  —  The  native  ferns  transplant  easily  to  the  garden,  and  they 
make  an  attractive  addition  to  the  side  of  a  house,  or  as  an  admixture 
in  a  hardy  border.  The  ostrich,  cinnamon,  and  royal  ferns  are  the 
best  subjects.  Give  all  outdoor  ferns  a  place  that  is  protected  from 
winds,  otherwise  they  will  shrivel  and  perhaps  die.  Screen  them  from 
the  hot  sun,  or  give  them  the  shady  side  of  the  building.  See  that  the 
soil  is  uniformly  moist,  and  that  it  does  not  get  too  hot.  Mulch  with 
leaf  mold  in  the  fall.  It  is  not  difficult  to  colonize  many  of  the  native 
ferns  in  shady  and  protected  places  where  trees  do  not  sap  all  the 
strength  from  the  ground. 

Probably  the  one  fern  grown  most  extensively  as  a  house-plant  is 
the  small-leaved  maidenhair  fern  (or  Adiantum  gracillimum) .  This 
and  other  species  are  among  the  finest  of  house  plants,  when  sufficient 
moisture  can  be  given.  They  make  fine  specimens  as  well  as  serving 
the  purpose  of  greenery  for  cut  flowers.  Other  species  often  grown  for 
house  plants  are  A.  cuneatum  and  A.  Capillus-Veneris.  All  these  do 
well  in  a  mixture  of  fibrous  sod,  loam,  and  sand,  with  ample  drainage 
material.     They  may  be  divided  if  an  increase  is  wanted. 

Another  fern  for  house  culture  is  Nephrolepsis  exaltata.  This  is 
no  doubt  the  most  easily  grown  of  the  list,  flourishing  in  a  sitting- 
room.  A  variety  of  A^.  exaltata,  called  the  Boston  fern,  is  a  decided 
addition  to  this  group,  having  a  drooping  habit,  covering  the  pot 
and  making  a  fine  stand  or  bracket  plant ;  and  there  are  now  several 
other  forms  of  it  suitable  for  the  best  window-gardens. 


FERNS  —  FREESIA  —  FUCHSIA  373 

Several  species  of  pteris,  especially  P.  serrulata,  are  valuable  house 
ferns,  but  require  a  warmer  place  than  those  mentioned  above.  They 
will  also  thrive  better  in  a  shady  or  ill-lighted  corner. 

Perfect  drainage  and  care  in  watering  have  more  to  do  with  the 
successful  growing  of  ferns  than  any  special  mixture  of  soils.  If  the 
drainage  material  in  the  bottom  of  the  pot  or  box  is  sufficient,  there  is 
little  danger  of  overwatering;  but  water-logged  soil  is  always  to  be 
avoided.  Do  not  use  clay  soils.  Ferns  need  protection  from  the 
direct  sunshine,  and  also  a  moist  atmosphere.  They  thrive  well  in 
a  close  glass  box,  or  window-garden,  if  the  conditions  can  be  kept 
equable. 

Freesia.  —  One  of  the  best  and  most  easily  handled  tender  winter- 
flowering  bulbs;  height  12  or  15  inches.  The  white  form  {Freesia 
refracta  alba)  is  the  best. 

The  white  or  yellowish  bell-shaped  flowers  of  freesia  are  produced 
on  slender  stalks  just  above  the  foliage,  to  the  number  of  six  to  eight 
in  a  cluster.  They  are  very  fragrant,  and  last  for  a  considerable  time 
when  picked.  The  bulbs  are  small,  and  look  as  though  they  could  not 
produce  a  growth  of  foliage  and  flowers,  but  even  the  smallest  mature 
bulb  will  prove  satisfactory.  Several  bulbs  should  be  planted  to- 
gether in  a  pot,  box,  or  pan,  in  October,  if  wanted  for  the  holidays,  or 
later  if  wanted  at  Easter.  The  plants  bloom  from  ten  to  twelve  weeks 
from  planting,  under  ordinary  care. 

No  special  treatment  is  required;  keep  the  plants  cool  and  moist 
through  the  growing  season.  The  soil  should  contain  a  little  sand 
mixed  with  fibrous  loam,  and  the  pot  should  be  well  drained.  After 
flowering,  gradually  withhold  water  and  the  tops  will  die  down,  after 
which  the  roots  may  be  shaken  out  and  rested  until  time  to  plant  in 
fall.     Care  should  be  taken  to  keep  them  perfectly  dry. 

The  bulbs  increase  rapidly  from  offsets.  Plants  may  also  be  grown 
from  seed,  which  should  be  sown  as  soon  as  ripe,  giving  blooming  plants 
the  second  or  third  year. 

Fuchsia.  —  Well-known  window  or  greenhouse  shrub,  treated  as 
an  herbaceous  subject;  many  interesting  forms;  late  winter,  spring 
and  summer. 


374  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

Fuchsia  is  readily  grown  from  cuttings.  Soft  green  wood  should 
be  used  for  cuttings,  and  it  will  root  in  about  three  weeks,  when  the 
cuttings  should  be  potted.  Take  care  not  to  have  them  pot-bound 
while  in  growth,  but  do  not  overpot  when  bloom  is  wanted.  Given 
warmth  and  good  soil,  they  will  make  fine  plants  in  three  months  or 
less.  In  well-protected,  partially  shady  places  they  may  be  planted 
out,  growing  into  miniature  bushes  by  fall. 

Plants  may  be  kept  on  from  year  to  year;  and  if  the  branches  are 
well  cut  back  after  blooming,  abundant  new  bloom  will  come.  But 
it  is  usually  best  to  make  new  plants  each  year  from  cuttings,  since 
young  plants  commonly  bloom  most  profusely  and  demand  less  care. 
Fuchsias  are  amongst  the  best  of  window  subjects. 

Geranium.  —  What  are  commonly  known  as  geraniums  are,  strictly 
speaking,  pelargoniums.     (See  Pelargonium.) 

The  true  geraniums  are  mostly  hardy  perennials,  and  therefore 
should  not  be  confounded  with  the  tender  pelargoniums.  Geraniums 
are  worthy  a  place  in  a  border.  They  may  be  transplanted  early  in 
the  spring,  setting  them  2  ft.  apart.  Height  10  to  12  in.  The 
common  wild  cranesbill  {Geranium  maculatum)  improves  under  cul- 
tivation, and  is  an  attractive  plant  when  it  stands  in  front-  of  taller 
foliage. 

Gladiolus.  —  Of  summer  and  fall-blooming  bulbous  plants,  gladiolus 
is  probably  the  most  widely  popular.  The  colors  range  from  scarlet 
and  purple,  to  white,  rose,  and  pure  yellow.  The  plants  are  of  slender, 
erect  habit,  growing  from  2  to  3  feet  high. 

Gladioli  dislike  a  heavy  clay  soil.  A  light  loam  or  sandy  soil  suits 
them  best.  No  fresh  manure  should  be  added  to  the  soil  the  year  in 
which  they  are  grown.  They  should  have  a  new  place  every  year,  if 
possible,  and  always  an  open  sunny  situation. 

The  corms  may  be  covered  2  inches  deep  in  heavy  soils,  and  4  to  6  in 
light  soils.  They  may  stand  8  to  10  inches  apart,  or  haK  this  distance 
for  mass  effects.  For  a  succession,  they  may  be  planted  at  short  inter- 
vals, the  earliest  planting  being  of  smaller  corms  in  the  early  spring  as 
soon  as  the  soil  is  dry  enough  to  work;  later  the  larger  are  to  be 
planted  —  the  last  setting  being  not  later  than  the  Fourth  of  July. 


GLADIOL  US  —  GL  OXINIA  375 

This  last  planting  will  afford  fine  late  flowers.  The  plants  should  be 
supported  by  inconspicuous  stakes. 

The  successive  plantings  may  be  in  the  same  bed  among  those  set 
earlier,  or  they  may  be  grouped  in  unoccupied  nooks,  or  portions  of 
the  border.  The  plants  may  stand  as  close  as  6  inches  from  each 
other.  The  earlier  planting  may  be  a  foot  apart  to  admit  of  later 
settings  between. 

Late  in  the  fall,  after  frosts  and  before  freezing,  the  corms  are  to 
be  dug,  cleaned,  and  dried  in  the  sun  and  air  for  a  few  hours  and  then 
stored  away  in  boxes  about  2\  inches  deep  in  a  cool,  dark,  and  dry 
place.    The  tops  should  be  left  on,  at  least  till  completely  shriveled. 

The  varieties  are  perpetuated  and  multiplied  by  the  little  corms 
that  appear  about  the  base  of  the  large  new  corm  which  is  formed  each 
year.  These  small  corms  may  be  taken  off  in  the  spring  and  sown 
thickly  in  drills.  Many  of  them  will  make  flowering  plants  by  the 
second  season.     They  are  treated  like  the  large  corms,  in  the  fall. 

Gladioli  are  easily  grown  from  seed  also,  but  this  method  cannot  be 
depended  on  to  perpetuate  desirable  varieties,  which  can  be  repro- 
duced only  by  the  cormels.  Some  of  the  best  flowers  may  be  cross- 
pollinated,  or  allowed  to  form  seed  in  the  usual  manner  ;  the  seed 
sown  thickly  in  drills,  and  shaded  till  the  plantlets  appear,  then  care- 
fully cultivated,  will  afford  a  crop  of  small  corms  in  the  fall.  These 
maybe  stored  for  the  winter,  like  the  other  young  corms,  and,  like  them, 
many  will  flower  the  second  season,  affording  a  great  variety  and  quite 
likely  some  new  and  striking  kinds.  Those  that  do  not  flower  should 
be  reserved  for  further  trial.  They  often  prove  finer  than  those  first 
to  flower. 

Early-flowering  varieties  of  gladioli  may  be  forced  for  late  winter  or 
spring  bloom. 

For  bouquets,  cut  the  spike  when  the  lower  flowers  open  ;  keep  in 
fresh  water,  cut  off  the  end  of  the  stem  frequently,  and  the  other 
flowers  will  expand. 

Gloxinia.  —  Choice  greenhouse  tuberous-rooted,  spring  and  summer- 
blooming  perennials,  sometimes  seen  in  window-gardens,  but  really 
not  adapted  to  them,  although  some  skillful  house-gardeners  grow  them 
successfully. 


376  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

Gloxinias  must  have  a  uniform  moist  and  warm  atmosphere  and 
protection  from  the  sun.  They  will  not  stand  abuse  or  varying  con- 
ditions. Propagated  often  by  leaf-cuttings,  which  should  give  flower- 
ing plants  in  one  year.  From  the  leaf,  inserted  half  its  length  in  the 
soil  (or  sometimes  only  the  petiole  inserted)  a  tuber  arises.  This  tuber, 
after  resting  until  midwinter  or  later,  is  planted,  and  flowering  plants 
soon  arise. 

Gloxinias  also  grow  readily  from  seeds,  which  may  be  germinated 
in  a  temperature  of  about  70°.  Flowering  plants  may  be  had  in  August 
if  seeds  are  sown  in  late  winter,  say  in  early  February.  This  is  the 
usual  method.  After  the  bloom  is  past,  the  tuber  is  partially  dried 
off  and  kept  dormant  till  the  following  season.  It  will  usually  show 
signs  of  activity  in  February  or  March,  when  it  may  be  shaken  out  of 
the  old  earth  and  a  little  water  may  then  be  applied  and  the  amount 
increased  till  the  plant  is  in  bloom.  The  same  tubers  may  be  bloomed 
several  times. 

Success  in  the  growing  of  gloxinias  is  largely  a  matter  of  proper 
watering.  Keep  the  dormant  tuber  just  dry  enough  to  prevent 
shrivehng,  never  trying  to  force  it  ahead  of  its  time.  Avoid  wetting 
the  leaves.  Protect  from  direct  sunlight.  Protect  from  draughts  on 
the  plants. 

Grevillea.  —  The  "she  oak,"  very  graceful  greenhouse  plant,  suit- 
able also  for  house  culture.  The  plants  grow  freely  from  seed,  and  until 
they  become  too  large  are  as  decorative  as  ferns.  Grevilleas  are  really 
trees,  and  are  valuable  in  greenhouses  and  rooms  only  in  their  young 
state.  They  withstand  much  abuse.  They  are  now  very  popular 
as  jardiniere  subjects.  Seeds  sown  in  spring  will  give  handsome 
plant^^s  by  the  next  winter.  Discard  the  plants  as  soon  as  they  become 
ragged. 

Hollyhocks.  —  These  old  garden  favorites  have  been  neglected  of 
late  years,  primarily  because  the  hollyhock  rust  has  been  so  preva- 
lent, destroying  the  plants  or  making  them  unsightly  (see  pp.  183,  210). 

Their  culture  is  very  simple.  The  seed  is  usually  sown  in  July  or 
August,  and  the  plants  set  where  wanted  the  following  spring.  They 
will  bloom  the  same  year  in  which  they  are  transplanted  —  the  year 


ROLL  YHO  CKS  —  H  YA  CINTHS  37? 

following  the  seed-sowing.  New  plants  should  be  set  every  two  years, 
as  the  old  crowns  are  likely  to  rot  or  die  after  the  first  flowering,  or  at 
least  to  become  weak.     (See  page  271.) 

Hyacinths  (see  Bulbs,  p.  281)  are  popular  spring-flowering  bulbs. 
Hyacinths  are  hardy,  but  they  are  often  used  as  window  or  green- 
house plants.  They  are  easy  to  grow  and  very  satisfactory  (Fig.  262). 
For  winter  flowering,  the  bulbs  should  be  procured  early  in  the  fall, 
potted  in  October  in  soil  composed  of  loam,  leaf  mold,  and  sand.  If 
ordinary  flower-pots  are  used,  put  in  the  bottom  a  few  pieces  of  broken 
pots,  charcoal,  or  small  stones  for  drainage;  then  fill  the  pot  with  dirt, 
so  that  when  the  bulb  is  planted,  the  top  will  be  on  a  level  with  the 
rim  of  the  pot.  Fill  in  around  the  bulb  with  soil,  leaving  just  the  tip 
showing.  These  pots  of  bulbs  should  be  placed  in  a  cold  pit,  cellar  or 
on  the  shady  side  of  a  building.  In  all  cases,  plunge  the  pot  in  some 
cool  material  (as  cinders).  Before  the  weather  becomes  cold  enough 
to  freeze  a  crust  on  the  ground,  the  pots  should  have  a  protection  of 
straw  or  leaves  to  keep  the  bulbs  from  severe  freezing.  In  about  six 
to  eight  weeks  the  bulbs  should  have  made  roots  enough  to  grow  the 
plant,  and  the  pots  may  be  placed  in  a  cool  room  for  a  short  time. 
When  the  plants  have  started  into  growth,  they  may  be  placed  in  a 
w^armer  situation.  Watering  should  be  carefully  attended  to  from 
this  time,  and  when  the  plant  is  in  bloom,  the  pot  may  be  set  in  a 
saucer  or  other  shallow  dish  containing  water.  After  flowering,  the 
bulbs  may  be  ripened  by  gradually  withholding  water  until  the  leaves 
die.  They  may  then  be  planted  out  in  the  border,  where  they  will 
bloom  each  spring  for  a  number  of  years,  but  will  never  prove  satisfac- 
tory for  forcing  again. 

The  open-ground  culture  of  hyacinths  is  the  same  as  for  tulips 
and  other  Holland  bulbs. 

The  hyacinth  is  the  most  popular  of  the  Dutch  bulbs  for  growing 
in  vases  of  water.  The  narcissus  may  be  grown  in  water,  and  do  just 
as  well,  but  it  is  not  as  attractive  in  glasses  as  the  hyacinth.  Glasses 
for  hyacinths  may  be  had  of  florists  who  deal  in  supplies,  and  in  various 
shapes  and  colors.  The  usual  form  is  tall  and  narrow,  with  a  cup- like 
mouth  to  receive  the  bulb.  They  are  filled  with  water,  so  that  it  will  j ust 
reach  the  base  of  the  bulb  when  placed  in  position  in  the  cup  or  shoulder 


378  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

above.  The  vessels  of  dark-colored  glass  are  preferable  to  those  o\ 
clear  glass,  as  roots  prefer  darkness.  When  the  glasses  have  been  filled, 
they  are  set  away  in  a  cool,  dark  place,  where  roots  will  form,  as  in 
potted  bulbs.  Results  are  usually  secured  earlier  in  water  than  in  soil. 
To  keep  the  water  sweet,  a  few  lumps  of  charcoal  may  be  put  in  the 
glass.  As  the  water  evaporates,  add  fresh;  add  enough  so  that  it  runs 
over,  and  thereby  renews  that  in  the  glass.  Do  not  disturb  the  roots 
by  taking  out  the  bulb. 

Iris  includes  many  handsome  perennials,  of  which  the  blue  flag  is 
familiar  to  every  old-fashioned  garden.  They  are  favorites  everywhere, 
for  their  brilliant  spring  and  summer  bloom ;  and  they  are  easy  to  grow. 

Most  irises  thrive  best  in  a  rather  moist  soil,  and  some  of  them  may 
be  colonized  in  the  water  in  margins  of  ponds. 

Gardeners  usually  divide  them  into  two  sections  —  the  tuberous- 
rooted  or  rhizomatous,  and  the  bulbous,  A  third  division  —  the 
fibrous-rooted  —  is  sometimes  made. 

The  common  and  most  serviceable  species  belong  to  the  tuberous- 
rooted  section.  Here  is  the  beautiful  and  varied  Japanese  iris.  Iris 
IcBvigata  (or  /.  Koemj)feri) ,  which  is  among  the  most  deserving  of  all 
hardy  perennials.  Most  of  these  irises  need  no  special  care.  They  are 
propagated  by  division  of  the  rootstocks.  Plant  the  pieces  one  foot 
apart  if  a  mass  effect  is  desired.  When  the  plants  begin  to  fail,  dig 
them  up,  divide  the  roots,  discard  the  old  parts,  and  grow  a  new  stock, 
as  before.  The  Japanese  iris  needs  much  water  and  a  very  rich  soil. 
Readily  grown  from  seeds,  giving  bloom  the  second  year.  /.  Susiana, 
of  this  section,  is  one  of  the  oddest  of  irises,  but  it  is  not  quite  hardy 
in  the  North. 

Of  the  bulbous  section,  most  species  are  not  hardy  far  North. 
The  bulbs  should  be  taken  up  and  replanted  every  two  or  three  years. 
The  Persian  and  Spanish  irises  belong  here.  The  bulbs  give  rise  to 
but  a  single  stem. 

Lily.  —  Under  this  name  are  included  bulbous  plants  of  many  kinds, 
not  all  of  them  being  true  lilies.  It  has  been  said  of  this  family  of 
plants  that  it  has  no  ''poor  relations,"  each  of  them  being  perfect  in 
itself.     Many  of  the  choicest  kinds  are  comparatively  unknown,  al- 


LIL  T  379 

though  easy  to  cultivate.  In  fact,  all  of  the  lilies  may  be  grown  with 
comparative  ease  in  regions  where  the  given  species  are  hardy. 

A  light,  fertile,  well-drained  soil,  mellow  to  the  depth  of  at  least  one 
foot,  a  handful  of  sand  under  each  bulb  if  the  soil  is  inchned  to  be  stiff, 
and  planting  so  that  the  crown  of  the  bulb  will  be  at  least  4  inches 
below  the  surface,  are  the  general  requirements.  One  exception  to 
the  depth  of  planting  is  Lilium  auratum,  or  golden-banded  lily.  This 
should  be  planted  deeper  —  from  8  to  12  inches  below  the  sur- 
face —  as  the  new  bulbs  form  over  the  old  one  and  soon  bring  the 
bulbs  to  the  surface  if  they  are  not  planted  deep.  Deep  working  of 
the  ground  is  always  desirable;  18  inches,  or  even  2  feet,  will  be 
none  too  deep.  L.  candidum  and  L.  testaceum  should  be  planted  in 
August  or  September,  if  possible;  but  usually  lilies  are  planted  in 
October  and  November. 

For  all  lilies  it  is  safer  to  provide  good  winter  protection  in  the 
form  of  a  mulch  of  leaves  or  manure,  and  extending  beyond  the  bor- 
ders of  the  planting.  This  should  be  5  inches  to  a  foot  deep,  accord- 
ing to  the  latitude  or  locality. 

While  most  Hlies  profit  by  partial  shade  (except  L.  candidum),  they 
should  never  be  planted  near  or  under  trees.  The  shade  or  protection 
of  tall-growing  herbaceous  plants  is  sufficient.  In  fact,  the  best  re- 
sults, both  as  to  growth  and  effect,  may  be  secured  by  planting  amongst 
low  shrubbery  or  border  plants. 

Most  kinds  are  the  better  for  remaining  undisturbed  for  a  number 
of  years;  but  if  they  are  to  be  taken  up  and  divided,  or  moved  to  other 
quarters,  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  dry.  The  small  bulbs, 
or  offsets,  may  be  planted  in  the  border,  and  if  protected,  will  grow  to 
flowering  size  in  two  or  three  years.  In  taking  up  bulbs  for  division 
it  is  best  to  do  so  soon  after  the  tops  die  after  blooming.  At  least  this 
should  be  done  early  in  the  fall,  not  later  than  October,  giving  the  plants 
a  chance  to  become  established  before  freezing  weather. 

As  pot-plants  some  kinds  of  lilies  are  very  satisfactory,  especially 
those  that  may  be  forced  into  bloom  through  the  winter.  The  best 
kinds  for  this  purpose  are  L.  Harrisii  (Easter  lily),  L.  longiflorum,  and 
L.  candidum.  Others  may  be  forced  with  success,  but  these  are  the 
ones  most  generally  used.  The  winter  culture  for  forcing  is  practi- 
cally the  same  as  for  hyacinths  in  pots. 


380  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

Some  of  the  best  kinds  of  lilies  are  mentioned  below :  — 
L.  candidum  (Annunciation  lily).     White;   3  to  4  feet  high;  it  makes 

an  autumn  growth,  and  should,  therefore,  be  planted  in  August; 

set  the  bulbs  from  4  to  6  inches  deep. 
L.  speciosum  (L.  lancifolium) ,  var.  prcecox.     White,  tinged  with  pink; 

bears  several  flowers  on  a  stem  about  3  feet  high. 
L.  speciosum,  var.  ruhrum.     Rose  color,  spotted  with  red. 
L.   Brownii.      Flowers  white  inside,  chocolate-colored  outside  ;   the 

stems  grow  about  3  feet  high,  bearing  from  2  to  4  tubular  flowers; 

not  difficult  to  manage  with  good  protection  and  drainage;    the 

bulbs  are  impatient  of  being  kept  long  out  of  the  ground;    after 

planting,  they  should  not  be  disturbed  as  long  as  they  flower  well. 
L.  maculatum  (L.  Hansoni).     Dark  yellow;  stems  3-4  feet  high,  each 

producing  6  to  12  flowers. 
L.  testaceum  (L.  excelsum,   L.   Isahellinum).     Rich  buff  color,   with 

delicate  spots;  plants  about  3  to  5  feet  high,  with  3  to  a  dozen  flowers 

on  a  stem;  plant  the  bulbs  in  September. 
L.  longiflorum.   White;  large  tubular  flowers,  2  to  8  on  a  stem;  height, 

about  2 1  feet. 
L.  Batemannice  (a  form  of  L.  elegans).    Apricot  yellow;  6  to  12  flowers 

on  stems  3  to  4  feet  high. 
L.    auratum    (Japanese    gold-banded   lily).     Immense    white   flowers 

banded  with  yellow  and  dotted  with  red  or  purple,  from  3  to  12  on 

a  stem ;  height,  3  to  4  feet  ;  the  bulbs  need  thorough  protection, 

good  drainage,  and  should  be  planted  10  or  12  inches  deep  (Fig.  258). 
L.  tigrinum  (Tiger  lily).     An  old  favorite,  with  many  drooping  bright 

red  spotted  flowers  ;  var.  splendens  is  specially  good  ;  3  to  5  ft. 
L.  tenuifolium.    Rich  scarlet  flowers  nodding  in  a  raceme  or  panicle  ; 

li  to  2  ft. 
L.  Maximowiczii  (L.  Leichtlinii).     Flowers  clear  yellow,  with  small, 

dark  spots,  10  to  12  on  a  stem;  height,  4  feet. 
L.  monadelphum.    Yellow  tubular-shaped  flowers  in  clusters  of  6  to 

a  dozen  or  more ;  stems  2^  feet  tall. 
L.  elegans  (L.   Thunhergianum),  var.  Alice  Wilson.     Lemon-yellow; 

stems  2  feet  high,  bearing  2  to  8  flowers. 
L.   elegant,   var.    fulgens    atrosanguineum.     Dark    crimson;    height, 

1  foot. 


LIL  Y-OF-THE-  VALLEY  —  MO  ON-FL  0  WEBS  381 

Lily-of-the-valley.  —  A  perfectly  hardy  little  perennial,  bearing 
racemes  of  small,  white,  bell-shaped  flowers  in  early  spring;  and  also 
much  forced  by  florists. 

For  ordinary  cultivation,  sods  or  mats  of  roots  may  be  dug  from 
any  place  in  which  the  plant  is  colonized.  Usually  it  thrives  best  in 
partial  shade;  and  the  leaves  make  an  attractive  mat  on  the  north  side 
of  a  building,  or  other  shady  place,  in  which  grass  will  not  grow.  The 
plants  will  take  care  of  themselves  year  after  year.  Better  results 
maybe  expected  from  good  commercial  roots.  The  "pips"  may  be 
planted  any  time  from  November  on,  from  3  to  6  inches  apart. 

For  forcing  indoors,  imported  roots  or  "pips"  are  used,  as  the  plants 
are  grown  for  this  particular  purpose  in  parts  of  Europe.  These  roots 
may  be  planted  in  pots,  and  treated  as  recommended  for  winter-flower- 
ing bulbs  (p.  345).  Florists  force  them  in  greater  heat,  however,  often 
giving  them  a  bottom  heat  of  80°  or  90°;  but  skill  and  experience  are 
required  in  order  to  attain  uniformly  good  results  in  this  case. 

Mignonette.  —  Probably  no  flower  is  more  generally  grown  for  its 
fragrance  than  the  mignonette.  It  is  a  half-hardy  annual,  thriving 
either  in  the  open  or  under  glass. 

The  mignonette  needs  a  cool  soil,  only  moderately  rich,  shade  part 
of  the  day,  and  careful  attention  to  cutting  the  flower-stalks  before  the 
seeds  are  ripe.  If  a  sowing  be  made  in  late  April,  followed  by  a  second 
sowing  in  early  July,  the  season  may  be  extended  until  severe  frosts. 
There  are  few  flowers  that  will  prove  as  disappointing  if  the  simple 
treatment  it  needs  is  omitted.     Height,  1  to  2  feet. 

It  may  be  sown  in  pots  late  in  summer  and  be  had  in  the  house  in 
winter. 

Moon-flowers  are  species  of  the  morning-glory  family  that  open 
their  flowers  at  night.  A  well-grown  plant  trained  over  a  porch  trellis, 
or  allowed  to  grow  at  random  over  a  low  tree  or  shrub,  is  a  striking  ob- 
ject when  in  full  flower  at  dusk  or  through  a  moonlit  evening.  In  the 
Southern  states  (where  it  is  much  grown)  the  moon-flower  is  a  peren- 
nial, but  even  when  well  protected  does  not  survive  the  winters  in  the 
North. 

Cuttings  usually  give  best  results  in  the  Northern  states,  as  the 


382  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

seasons  are  not  long  enough  for  seed  plants  to  give  good  bloom.  Cut- 
tings may  be  made  before  danger  of  frost  and  wintered  in  the  house, 
or  the  plants  may  be  grown  from  seed  sown  in  January  or  February. 
Seeds  should  be  scalded  or  filed  just  before  sowing. 

The  true  moon-flower  is  Ipomcea  Bona- N ox,  white-flowered;  but 
there  are  other  kinds  that  go  under  this  name.  This  grows  20  to  30 
feet  where  the  seasons  are  long  enough. 

Narcissus  (see  Bulbs,  p.  281).  —  Daffodils,  jonquils,  and  the  poet's 
narcissus  all  belong  to  this  group,  and  many  of  them  are  perfectly 
hardy.  The  polyanthus  section,  which  includes  the  Paper- white  nar- 
cissus and  sacred  lily  or  Chinese  joss-flower,  are  not  hardy  except  with 
unusually  good  protection,  and  are,  therefore,  most  suitable  for  grow- 
ing indoors. 

It  is  common  to  allow  the  hardy  sorts  to  take  care  of  themselves 
when  once  planted.  This  they  will  do,  but  much  more  satisfactory  re- 
sults will  be  had  by  lifting  and  dividing  the  clumps  every  three  or  four 
years.  A  single  bulb  in  a  few  years  forms  a  large  clump.  In  this  con- 
dition the  bulbs  are  not  properly  nourished,  and  consequently  do  not 
flower  well.  Lifting  is  preferably  done  in  August  or  September,  when 
the  foliage  has  died  down  and  the  bulbs  are  ripe. 

The  narcissi  are  well  suited  to  partially  shaded  places,  and  will 
grow  and  please  wherever  good  taste  may  place  them.  They  should 
be  freely  used,  as  they  are  fragrant,  bright  of  color,  and  easily  managed — 
growing  among  shrubbery,  trees,  and  in  places  where  other  flowers 
would  refuse  to  grow.  They  should  be  planted  in  clumps  or  masses, 
in  September  or  October,  setting  the  bulbs  5  to  8  inches  apart,  ac- 
cording to  size,  and  3  or  4  inches  deep. 

Several  species  and  numberless  varieties,  both  double  and  single, 
are  grown.     A  few  good  types  only  can  be  mentioned  (Fig.  260) :  — 

Daffodils,  or  Trumpet  narcissus  (Narcissus  Pseudo- Narcissus  and  de- 
rivatives) . 

Single-flowered,  Yellow.  —  Golden  Spur,  Trumpet  Major,  Van  Sion. 
White.  —  Albicans. 

White  and  Yellow.  —  Empress,  Horsefieldi. 
Double-flowering,  Yellow.  —  Incomparable  fl.  pi.,  Van  Sion. 
White.  —  Alba  plena  odorata. 


NARCISSUS— OLEANDER  383 

PoeVs  narcissus    ( A^.   poeticus) .     Flowers  white,   with    yellow    cups 

edged  crimson.     Very  fragrant. 
Jonquils  (N.  Jonquilla),     These  have  very  fragrant  yellow  flowers, 

both  double  and  single,  and  are  old  garden  favorites. 
Polyanthus    narcissus    {N.    Tazetta).     These    include    paper-white, 

Chinese  sacred  lily  (var.  orientalis),  and  others. 
Primrose  Peerless  {N.  bijiorus). 

Narcissi  may  be  forced  into  flower  through  the  winter,  as  described 
on  p.  345.  A  popular  kind  for  winter  bloom  is  the  so-called 
Chinese  sacred  lily.  This  grows  in  water  without  any  soil  whatever. 
Secure  a  bowl  or  glass  dish,  about  three  times  the  size  of  the  bulb; 
put  some  pretty  stones  in  the  bottom;  set  in  the  bulb  and  build  up 
around  it  with  stones  so  as  to  hold  it  stiff  when  the  leaves  have  grown ; 
tuck  two  or  three  small  pieces  of  charcoal  among  the  stones  to  keep 
the  water  sweet,  then  fill  up  the  dish  with  water  and  add  a  little  every 
few  days,  as  it  evaporates.  Set  the  dish  in  a  warm,  light  place.  In 
about  six  weeks  the  fragrant,  fine  white  flowers  will  fill  the  room  with 
perfume.  The  Paper-white,  closely  allied  to  this,  is  also  forced,  and  is 
one  of  the  few  good  bulbs  that  may  be  bloomed  before  Christmas.  The 
Van  Sions,  single  and  double  (a  form  of  daffodil),  are  also  much  forced. 

Oleander.  —  An  old  favorite  shrub  for  the  window-garden,  and  much 
planted  in  the  open  far  South. 

While  there  are  many  named  varieties  of  the  oleander,  but  two  are 
often  seen  in  general  cultivation.  These  are  the  common  red  and  white 
varieties.  Both  these,  as  well  as  the  named  varieties,  are  of  easy  man- 
agement and  well  adapted  to  home  culture,  growing  in  pots  or  tubs 
for  several  years  without  special  care.  Well-grown  specimens  are  very 
effective  as  porch  or  lawn  plants,  or  may  be  used  to  good  advantage  in 
mixed  beds  of  tall-growing  plants,  plunging  the  pot  or  tub  to  the  rim 
in  the  soil.  The  plants  should  be  cut  back  after  flowering.  They 
should  be  rested  in  any  out-of-the-way  place  through  the  winter. 
When  brought  out  in  the  spring,  they  should  be  given  sun  and  air  in 
order  to  make  a  sturdy  growth. 

Propagation  is  effected  by  using  well-ripened  wood  for  cuttings, 
placed  in  a  close  frame ;  or  the  slips  may  be  rooted  in  a  bottle  or  can 
of  water,  care  being  taken  to  supply  water  as  evaporation  takes  place. 


384  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

After  being  rooted,  they  may  be  potted,  using  soil  with  a  large  propor- 
tion  of  sand.  Well-established  plants  may  be  repotted  in  good  loam 
and  well-rotted  manure.     They  should  bloom  the  second  year. 

Oxalis.  — A  number  of  hardy  species  of  oxalis  are  excellent  plants 
for  rock-work  and  edging.  The  greenhouse  species  are  very  showy, 
growing  without  extra  care,  and  blooming  freely  through  the  late 
winter  and  spring  months  and  some  of  them  make  excellent  window- 
gardening  subjects. 

The  house  species  are  mostly  increased  by  bulbs,  a  few  by  division 
of  the  root.  0.  violacea  is  one  of  the  commonest  of  house-plants.  Give 
a  sunny  window,  for  the  flowers  open  only  in  sun  or  very  bright  light. 
The  bulbous  (tuberous)  kinds  are  treated  much  as  recommended  for 
Bulbs  (p.  281),  except  that  the  bulbs  must  not  freeze.  The  tubers  are' 
started  in  August  or  September  for  winter  bloom.  It  is  best  to  use 
deep  pots,  or  the  tubers  will  throw  themselves  out.  The  crown  should 
be  near  the  surface.  After  flowering,  the  bulbs  are  dried  off  and  kept 
until  new  bloom  is  wanted. 

The  "  Bermuda  buttercup "  is  0.  lutea  and  0.  flava  of  gardens 
(properly  0.  cernua) ;  it  is  a  Cape  of  Good  Hope  species.  Its  culture 
is  not  peculiar. 

Palms.  —  No  more  graceful  plants  for  room  decoration  can  be 
found  than  well-grown  specimens  of  some  species  of  palms.  Most 
florists'  palms  are  well  adapted  for  this  purpose  when  small,  and  as 
the  growth  is  usually  very  slow,  a  plant  may  be  used  for  many  years. 

Palm  plants  thrive  best  in  partial  shade.  One  of  the  frequent  causes 
of  failure  in  the  culture  of  the  palm  is  the  overpotting  and  subsequent 
overwatering.  A  palm  should  not  be  repotted  until  the  mass  of  roots 
fills  the  soil  and  preferably  when  it  is  active ;  then  a  pot  only  a  size  larger 
should  be  used.  Use  ample  drainage  in  the  bottom  to  carry  off  excess  of 
water.  Although  the  plants  need  a  moist  soil,  water  standing  at  the 
roots  proves  injurious.  Withhold  free  use  of  water  when  the  plants 
are  partially  dormant  (page  347). 

A  soil  composed  of  well-rotted  sod,  leafmold,  and  a  little  sand  will 
meet  the  requirements. 

Under  ordinary  living-room  conditions,  palms  are  subject  to  much 


PALMS— P  AND  ANUS  385 

abuse.  Water  is  allowed  to  stand  in  the  jardiniere,  the  plant  is  kept 
in  dark  corners  and  hallways,  the  air  is  dry,  and  scale  is  allowed  to 
infest  the  leaves.  If  the  plant  begins  to  fail,  the  housewife  is  likely  to 
repot  it  or  to  give  it  more  water,  both  of  which  may  be  wrong.  The 
addition  of  bone-meal  or  other  fertilizer  may  be  better  than  repotting. 
Keep  the  plant  in  good  light  (but  not  in  direct  sunlight)  as  much  as 
possible.  Sponge  the  leaves  to  remove  dust  and  scale,  using  soapsuds. 
When  a  new  leaf  begins  to  appear,  add  bone-meal  to  make  it  grow 
vigorously. 

Among  the  best  palms  for  house  culture  are  arecas,  Cocos  Weddel- 
liana,  latania,  kentia,  howea,  caryota,  chamserops,  and  phoenix. 
Cycas  may  also  be  regarded  as  a  palm. 

The  date  palm  may  be  grown  from  seed  of  the  common  commercial 
date.  Seed  of  the  other  varieties  may  be  purchased  from  leading  seeds- 
men ;  but,  as  the  seed  germinates  only  under  favorable  conditions,  and 
the  palm  is  a  very  slow-growing  plant  while  young,  the  best  plan  is  to 
purchase  the  plants  from  a  dealer  when  wanted.  When  the  plants 
become  weak  or  diseased,  take  them  to  a  florist  for  treatment  and  re- 
cuperation, or  purchase  new  ones.  Sometimes  the  florist  places  two  or 
three  small  palms  in  one  pot,  making  a  very  satisfactory  table  piece  for 
two  or  three  years. 

It  is  well  to  set  the  palms  out  of  doors  in  the  summer,  plunging  the 
pots  nearly  or  quite  to  the  rim.  Turn  or  lift  the  pots  occasionally  so 
that  the  roots  will  not  strike  through  into  the  earth.  Choose  a  par- 
tially shaded  place,  where  the  hot  sun  will  not  strike  them  directly  and 
where  the  wind  will  not  injure  them. 

Pandanus,  or  screw  pine.  —  The  screw  pines  are  stiff-leaved  saw- 
edged  plants  often  grown  in  window-gardens  and  used  for  porch  deco- 
ration. 

The  Pandanus  utilis  and  P.  Veitchii  (the  latter  striped-leaved  or 
white-leaved)  are  exceedingly  ornamental,  and  are  well  adapted  to 
house  culture.  The  singular  habit  of  growth,  bright  glossy  leaves, 
and  the  ability  to  withstand  the  dust  and  shade  of  a  dwelling  room, 
make  them  a  desirable  addition  to  the  house  collection. 

They  are  propagated  by  the  offsets  or  young  plants  that  grow  around 
the  base  of  the  trunk;  or  they  may  be  increased  by  seed.  If  by  the 
2c 


386  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

former  method,  the  offsets  should  be  cut  off  and  set  in  sand,  at  a  tem- 
perature of  65°  or  70°.  The  cuttings  root  slowly  and  the  plants  for  a 
time  make  very  slow  growth.  The  general  cultural  treatment  is  that 
of  palms.     Give  abundance  of  water  in  summer. 

Pansy  (Fig.  244)  is  without  doubt  the  most  popular  hardy  spring 
flower  in  cultivation.  The  strains  of  seed  are  many,  each  contain- 
ing great  possibihties. 

The  culture  is  simple  and  the  results  are  sure.  Seed  sown  in  August 
or  September,  in  boxes  or  a  frame,  will  make  plants  large  enough  to 
reset  in  November  (three  or  four  inches  apart)  and  bloom  the- follow- 
ing March;  or  they  may  be  left  until  March  in  open  seed-beds  before 
setting  out.  Also,  if  they  are  sown  very  thinly  in  the  frames,  they 
may  remain  undisturbed  through  the  winter,  blooming  very  early  the 
following  spring.  The  frames  should  be  protected  by  mats,  boards, 
or  other  covering  through  the  severe  cold,  and  as  the  sun  gains  strength, 
care  should  be  taken  to  keep  them  from  heaving  by  alternate  thawing 
and  freezing.  Seed  sown  in  boxes  in  January  or  February  will  make 
fine  blooming  plants  by  April,  taking  the  place  of  those  blooming  earlier. 

The  pansy  is  generally  mentioned  with  plants  suitable  for  partial 
shade,  but  it  also  thrives  in  other  localities,  especially  where  the  sun 
is  not  very  hot  nor  the  weather  very  dry.  The  requisites  for  satisfac- 
tory pansy  culture  are  fertile,  moist,  cool  soil,  protection  from  the 
noonday  sun,  and  attention  to  keeping  plants  from  going  to  seed.  As 
the  ground  becomes  warm,  a  mulch  of  leafmold  or  other  light  material 
should  be  spread  over  the  bed  to  retain  moisture  and  exclude  heat. 
Spring  and  fall  give  the  best  bloom.  In  hot  summer  weather  the 
flowers  become  small. 

Pelargonium.  —  To  this  genus  belong  the  plants  known  as  gera- 
niums —  the  most  satisfactory  of  house-plants,  and  extensively  used 
as  bedding  plants.  No  plants  will  give  better  returns  in  leaf  and 
flower;  and  these  features,  added  to  the  ease  of  propagation,  make  them 
general  favorites.  The  common  geranium  is  one  of  the  few  plants  that 
can  be  bloomed  at  any  time  of  the  year. 

There  are  several  main  groups  of  pelargoniums,  as  the  common 
"fish  geraniums"  (from  the  odor  of  the  foHage),  the  "show"  or  Lady 


PELARGONIUM  —  PEONY  387 

Washington  pelargoniums,  the  ivy  geraniums,  the  thin-leaved  bedders 
(as  Madame  Salleroi),  and  the  "rose"  geraniums. 

Cuttings  of  partially  ripened  wood  of  all  pelargoniums  root  very 
easily,  grow  to  blooming  size  in  a  short  time,  and,  either  planted  out 
or  grown  in  a  pot,  make  fine  decorations.  The  common  or  fish  gera- 
niums are  much  more  satisfactory  when  not  more  than  a  year  old. 
Take  cuttings  from  the  old  plants  at  least  once  a  year.  In  four  or 
five  months  the  young  plants  begin  to  bloom.  Plants  may  be  taken 
up  from  the  garden  and  potted,  but  they  rarely  give  as  much  satisfac- 
tion as  young,  vigorous  subjects;  new  plants  should  be  grown  every 
year.  Repot  frequently  until  they  are  in  4-  to  5-inch  pots;  then  let 
them  bloom. 

The  show  pelargoniums  have  but  one  period  of  bloom,  usually  in 
April,  but  they  make  up  in  size  and  coloring.  This  section  is  more 
difficult  to  manage  as  house-plants  than  the  common  geranium,  need- 
ing more  direct  light  to  keep  it  stocky,  and  being  troubled  by  insects. 
Still,  all  the  trouble  taken  to  grow  the  plants  will  be  well  repaid  by  the 
handsome  blossoms.  Take  cuttings  in  late  spring,  after  flowering,  and 
blooming  plants  may  be  had  the  following  year.  Good  results  are 
sometimes  secured  by  keeping  these  plants  two  or  three  years.  Cut 
back  after  each  blooming  season. 

For  house  culture  the  geraniums  need  a  fertile,  fibrous  loam,  with 
the  addition  of  a  little  sand;  good  drainage  is  also  an  essential. 

Peony.  —  The  herbaceous  peony  has  long  had  a  place  in  the  gar- 
den ;  it  has  now  been  much  improved  and  constitutes  one  of  the  very 
best  plants  known  to  cultivation.  It  is  perfectly  hardy,  and  free  from 
the  many  diseases  and  insects  that  attack  so  many  plants.  It  continues 
to  bloom  year  after  year  without  renewal,  if  the  soil  is  well  prepared 
and  fertile.    Fig.  250. 

Inasmuch  as  the  peony  is  such  a  strong  grower  and  produces  so 
many  enormous  flowers,  it  must  have  a  soil  that  can  supply  abundant 
plant-food  and  moisture.  The  old-fashioned  single  and  semi-double 
comparatively  small-flowered  kinds  will  give  good  results  in  any  ordi- 
nary ground,  but  the  newer  highly  improved  sorts  must  be  given  better 
treatment.  This  is  one  of  the  plants  that  profit  by  a  very  rich  soil. 
The  place  should  be  very  deeply  plowed  or  else  trenched;   and  if  the 


388  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

land  is  in  sod  or  is  not  in  good  heart,  the  preparation  should  begin  the 
season  before  the  peonies  are  planted.  A  deep  moist  loam  suits  them 
best;  and  as  the  plants  grow  and  bloom,  add  bone  meal  and  top-dress 
with  manure.  When  making  their  growth  and  when  in  bloom,  they 
should  not  be  allowed  to  want  for  water. 

In  purchasing  peony  roots,  be  careful  to  secure  only  well-grown 
and  selected  stock.  Cheap  stock,  job  lots,  and  odds  and  ends  are 
likely  to  be  very  disappointing. 

The  plants  may  be  set  in  fall  or  spring,  the  latter  being  preferable 
in  the  North.  Cover  the  crown  bud  2  or  3  inches,  being  careful 
not  to  injure  it.  If  the  best  blooms  are  desired,  give  plenty  of  room, 
as  much  as  3  X  4  feet.  Peonies  grow  2  to  3  feet  or  even  more 
in  height.  Strong  roots  of  some  varieties  will  give  bloom  the  first 
year;  considerable  bloom  will  come  the  second  year;  but  the  full 
bloom  on  most  varieties  should  not  be  expected  before  the  third 
year.  The  flowers  may  be  brightened  and  their  duration  prolonged 
by  partial  shade  while  in  bloom. 

If  old  plants  become  weak,  or  if  they  drop  their  buds,  dig  them  up 
and  see  whether  the  roots  are  not  more  or  less  dead  and  decayed; 
divide  to  fresh  parts  and  replant  in  well-enriched  ground;  or  purchase 
new  plants. 

Peonies  are  propagated  by  division  of  the  roots  in  early  fall,  one 
good  strong  eye  being  left  to  each  piece. 

The  peony  has  merit  for  its  foliage  as  well  as  for  its  bloom,  particu- 
larly when  the  soil  is  rich  and  the  growth  luxuriant.  This  value  of 
the  plant  is  commonly  overlooked.  The  peony  deserves  its  popu- 
larity. 

Phlox.  —  Garden  phloxes  are  of  two  kinds,  the  annual  and  peren- 
nial.    Both  are  most  valuable. 

Excepting  the  petunia,  no  plant  will  give  the  profusion  of  bloom 
with  as  little  care  as  the  annual  phlox  {Phlox  Drummondii) .  For  clear 
and  brilliant  colors,  the  many  varieties  of  this  are  certainly  unrivaled. 
The  dwarf  kinds  are  the  more  desirable  for  ribbon-beds,  as  they  are  not 
so  ''leggy."  There  are  whites,  pinks,  reds,  and  variegated  of  the  most  ' 
dazzling  brilliancy.  The  dwarfs  grow  ten  inches  high,  and  bloom 
continuously.     Set  them  8  inches  apart  in  good  soil.     Seed  may  be 


PHLOX — PRIMULAS  38d 

sown  in  the  open  ground  in  May,  or  for  early  plants,  in  the  hotbed 
in  March.  They  may  be  sown  close  in  the  fall  if  sown  very  late,  so  that 
the  seeds  will  not  start  till  spring. 

The  perennial  phlox  of  the  gardens  has  been  developed  from  the 
native  species,  Phlox  paniculata  and  P.  maculata.  The  garden  forms 
are  often  collectively  known  under  the  name  of  P.  deciAssata.  In  recent 
years  the  perennial  phlox  has  been  much  improved,  and  it  now  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  best  of  all  flower-garden  subjects.  It  grows  three 
feet  tall,  and  bears  a  profusion  of  fine  flowers  in  heavy  trusses  in  mid- 
summer to  fall.     Figs.  246,  248. 

Perennial  phlox  is  of  easy  culture.  The  important  point  is  that 
the  plants  begin  to  fail  of  best  bloom  about  the  third  year,  and  they 
are  hkely  to  become  diseased;  and  new  plantings  should  be  made  if 
the  strongest  flowers  are  desired.  The  plants  may  be  taken  up  in  fall, 
the  roots  divided  and  cleaned  of  dead  and  weak  parts,  and  the  pieces 
replanted.  Usually,  however,  the  beginner  will  secure  more  satis- 
faction in  purchasing  new  cutting-grown  plants.  This  phlox  propa- 
gates readily  by  seed,  and  if  one  does  not  care  to  perpetuate  the  par- 
ticular variety,  he  will  find  much  satisfaction  in  raising  seedlings. 
Some  varieties  "  come  true  "  from  seed  with  fair  regularity.  Seedlings 
should  bloom  the  second  year. 

Fertile  garden  soil  of  any  kind  should  raise  good  perennial  phlox. 
See  that  the  plants  do  not  want  for  water  or  plant-food  at  blooming 
time.  Liquid  manure  will  often  help  to  keep  them  going.  If  they 
are  likely  to  suffer  for  water  when  in  bloom,  wet  the  ground  well  every 
evening. 

If  the  leading  shoots  are  pinched  off  early  in  the  season,  and  again 
in  midsummer,  the  bloom  will  be  later,  perhaps  in  September  rather 
than  in  July. 

Primulas,  or  primroses,  are  of  various  kinds,  some  being  border 
plants,  but  mostly  known  in  this  country  as  greenhouse  and  window- 
garden  subjects.  One  of  them  is  the  auricula  (p.  354).  The  true  or 
English  cowslip  is  one  of  the  hardy  border  plants;  also  the  plants 
commonly  known  as  polyanthus. 

Common  hardy  primulas  (or  polyanthus  and  related  forms)  grow 
6  to  10  inches  high,  sending  up  trusses  of  yellow  and  red  flowers  in 


390  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

early  spring.  Propagated  by  division,  or  by  seed  sown  a  year  before 
the  plants  are  wanted.     Give  them  rather  moist  soil. 

The  primula  of  the  winter-garden  is  mostly  the  P.  Sinensis  (Chinese 
Primrose),  grown  very  extensively  by  florists  as  a  Christmas  plant. 
With  the  exception  of  the  full  double  varieties,  it  is  usually  grown 
from  seed.  There  is  a  popular  single  form  known  as  P.  stellata.  The 
seed  of  Chinese  primulas  sown  in  March  or  April  will  make  large  flower- 
ing plants  by  November  or  December,  if  the  young  plants  are  shifted 
to  larger  pots  as  needed.  The  seed  should  be  sown  on  the  fiat  surface 
of  the  soil,  composed  of  equal  parts  loam,  leafmold,  and  sand.  The 
seed  should  be  pressed  down  lightly  and  the  soil  watered  carefully 
to  prevent  the  seed  from  being  washed  into  the  soil.  Very  fine  sphag- 
num moss  may  be  sifted  oyer  the  seed,  or  the  box  set  in  a  moist  place, 
where  the  soil  will  remain  wet  until  the  seeds  germinate.  When  the 
plants  are  large  enough,  they  should  be  potted  separately  or  pricked 
out  into  shallow  boxes.  Frequent  pottings  or  transplantings  should 
be  given  until  September,  when  they  should  be  in  the  pots  in  which 
they  are  to  bloom.  The  two  essentials  to  successful  growth  through 
the  hot  summer  are  shade  and  moisture.  Height,  6  to  8  inches. 
Bloom  in  winter  and  spring. 

At  present  the  "baby  Primrose"  (Primula  Forbesi)  is  popular.  It 
is  treated  in  essentially  the  same  way  as  the  Sinensis.  The  obconica 
(P.  obconica)  in  several  forms  is  a  popular  florist's  plant,  but  is  not 
much  used  in  window-gardens.  The  hairs  poison  the  hands  of  some 
persons.     Culture  practically  as  for  P.  Sinensis. 

All  primulas  are  impatient  of  a  dry  atmosphere  and  fluctuating  con- 
ditions. 

Rhododendrons  are  broad-leaved  evergreen  shrubs  that  are  admi- 
rably adapted  to  producing  strong  planting  effects.  Some  of  them  are 
hardy  in  the  Northern  states. 

Rhododendrons  require  a  fibrous  or  peaty  soil  and  protection  from 
bleak  winds  and  bright  suns  in  summer  and  winter.  A  northern  or 
somewhat  shady  exposure,  to  break  the  force  of  the  midday  sun,  is  ad- 
visable ;  but  they  should  not  be  planted  where  large  trees  will  sap  the 
fertility  and  moisture  from  the  ground.  They  protect  each  other  if 
grown  in  masses,  and  also  produce  better  planting  effects. 


RHODODENDRONS  —  ROSE  391 

They  require  a  deep,  fibrous  earth,  and  it  is  supposed  that  they 
do  not  thrive  in  hmestone  soils  or  where  wood  ashes  are  freely  used. 
While  rhododendrons  will  sometimes  succeed  without  any  special  prep- 
aration of  the  ground,  it  is  advisable  to  take  particular  pains  in  this 
regard.  It  is  well  to  dig  a  hole  2  or  3  feet  deep,  and  fill  it  with 
earth  compounded  of  leafmold,  well-rotted  sod,  and  peat.  The 
moisture  supply  should  be  never  failing,  for  they  suffer  from  drought. 
They  should  be  mulched  summer  and  winter.     Plant  in  spring. 

The  hardy  garden  forms  are  derivatives  of  Rhododendron  Cataw- 
biense,  of  the  southern  Appalachian  Mountains.  The  Pontica  and 
other  forms  are  not  hardy  in  the  North. 

The  "great  laurel"  of  the  northern  United  States  (p.  299)  is  Rho- 
dodendron maximum.  This  has  been  extensively  colonized  in  large 
grounds  by  being  removed  from  the  wild  in  carload  lots.  When  the 
native  conditions  are  imitated,  it  makes  unusually  good  mass  planting. 
Like  all  rhododendrons  it  is  impatient  of  drought,  hard  soil,  and  full 
exposure  to  midday  sun.  This  species  is  valued  for  its  foliage  and 
habit  more  than  for  its  bloom.  The  wild  form  of  R.  Catawbiense  is 
also  transferred  to  grounds  in  large  quantities. 

Rose.  —  No  home  property  is  complete  without  roses.  There  are 
so  many  kinds  and  classes  that  varieties  may  be  found  for  almost  any 
purpose,  from  climbing  or  pillar  subjects  (p.  318)  to  highly  fragrant 
teas,  great  hybrid  perpetuals,  free-blooming  bedders,  and  good  foliage 
subjects  for  the  shrubbery.  There  is  no  flower  in  the  growing  of  which 
one  so  quickly  develops  the  temper  and  taste  of  the  connoisseur. 

Roses  are  essentially  flower-garden  subjects  rather  than  lawn  sub- 
jects, since  flowers  are  their  chief  beauty.  Yet  the  foliage  of  many 
of  the  highly  developed  roses  is  good  and  attractive  when  the  plants 
are  well  grown.  To  secure  the  best  results  with  roses,  they  should 
be  placed  in  a  bed  by  themselves,  where  they  can  be  tilled  and  pruned 
and  well  taken  care  of,  as  other  flower-garden  plants  are.  The  ordinary 
garden  roses  should  rarely  be  grown  in  mixed  borders  of  shrubbery. 
It  is  usually  most  satisfactory  also  to  make  beds  of  one  variety  rather 
than  to  mix  them  with  several  varieties. 

If  it  is  desired  to  have  roses  in  mixed  shrubbery  borders,  then  the 
single  and  informal  types  should  be  chosen.     The  best  of  all  these  is 


392  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Rosa  rugosa.  This  has  not  only  attractive  flowers  through  the  greater 
part  of  the  season,  but  it  also  has  very  interesting  foliage  and  a  striking 
habit.  The  great  profusion  of  bristles  and  spines  gives  it  an  individual 
and  strong  character.  Even  without  the  flowers,  it  is  valuable  to  add 
character  and  cast  to  a  foliage  mass.  The  foliage  is  not  attacked  by 
insects  or  fungi,  but  remains  green  and  glossy  throughout  the  year. 
The  fruit  is  also  very  large  and  showy,  and  persists  on  bushes  well 
through  the  winter.  Some  of  the  wild  roses  are  also  very  excellent 
for  mixing  into  foliage  masses,  but,  as  a  rule,  their  foliage  character- 
istics are  rather  weak,  and  they  are  liable  to  be  attacked  by  thrips. 

There  are  so  many  classes  of  roses  that  the  intending  planter  is 
likely  to  be  confused  unless  he  knows  what  they  are.  Different  classes 
require  different  treatment.  Some  of  them,  as  the  teas  and  hybrid 
perpetuals  (the  latter  also  known  as  remontants),  bloom  from  new 
canes;  while  the  rugosa,  the  Austrian,  Harrison's  yellow,  sweet  briers, 
and  some  others  are  bushes  and  do  not  renew  themselves  each  year 
from  the  crown  or  bases  of  the  canes. 

The  outdoor  roses  may  be  divided  into  two  great  groups  so  far  as 
their  blooming  habit  is  involved:  (1)  The  continuous  or  intermittent 
bloomers,  as  the  hybrid  perpetuals  (blooming  chiefly  in  June),  bour- 
bons, tea,  rugosa,  the  teas  and  hybrid  teas  being  the  most  continuous 
in  bloom;  (2)  those  that  bloom  once  only,  in  summer,  as  Austrian, 
Ayrshire,  sweet  briers,  prairie,  Cherokee,  Banksian,  provence,  most 
moss  roses,  damask,  multiflora,  polyantha,  and  memorial  (Wichura- 
iana).  ''Perpetual"  or  recurrent-blooming  races  have  been  developed 
in  the  Ayrshire,  moss,  polyantha,  and  others. 

While  roses  delight  in  a  sunny  exposure,  nevertheless  our  dry  at- 
mosphere and  hot  summers  are  sometimes  trying  on  the  flowers,  as  are 
severe  wintry  winds  on  the  plants.  While,  therefore,  it  is  never  ad- 
visable to  plant  roses  near  large  trees,  or  where  they  will  be  over- 
shadowed by  buildings  or  surrounding  shrubbery,  some  shade  during 
ihe  heat  of  the  day  will  be  a  benefit.  The  best  position  is  an  eastern 
or  northern  slope,  and  where  fences  or  other  objects  will  break  the 
force  of  strong  winds,  in  those  sections  where  such  prevail. 

Roses  should  be  carefully  taken  up  every  four  or  five  years,  tops  and 
roots  cut  in,  and  then  reset,  either  in  a  new  place  or  in  the  old,  after 
enriching  the  soil  with  a  fresh  supply  of  manure,  and  deeply  spading 


ROSE  393 

it  over.     In  Holland,  roses  are  allowed  to  stand  about  eight  years. 
They  are  then  taken  out  and  their  places  filled  with  young  plants. 

Soil  and  'planting  for  roses. 

The  best  soil  for  roses  is  a  deep  and  rich  clay  loam.  If  it  is  mora  or 
less  of  a  fibrous  character  from  the  presence  of  grass  roots,  as  is  the 
case  with  newly  plowed  sod  ground,  so  much  the  better.  While  such 
is  desirable,  any  ordinary  soil  will  answer,  provided  it  is  well  manured. 
Cow  manure  is  strong  and  lasting,  and  has  no  heating  effect.  It  will 
cause  no  damage,  even  if  not  rotted.  Horse  manure,  however,  should 
be  well  rotted  before  mixing  it  with  the  soil.  The  manure  may  be 
mixed  in  the  soil  at  the  rate  of  one  part  in  four.  If  well  rotted,  how- 
ever, more  will  not  do  any  damage,  as  the  soil  can  scarcely  be  made 
too  rich,  especially  for  the  everblooming  (hybrid  tea)  roses.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  mix  the  manure  thoroughly  with  the  earth,  and  not 
to  plant  the  roses  against  the  manure. 

In  planting,  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  exposing  the  roots  to  the 
drying  of  sun  and  air.  If  dormant  field-grown  plants  have  been  pur- 
chased, all  broken  and  bruised  roots  will  need  to  be  cut  off  smoothly 
and  squarely.  The  tops  also  will  need  cutting  back.  The  cut  should 
always  be  made  just  above  a  bud,  preferably  on  the  outer  side  of  the 
cane.  Strong-growing  sorts  may  be  cut  back  one-fourth  or  one-half, 
according  as  they  have  good  or  bad  roots.  Weaker-growing  kinds, 
as  most  of  the  everblooming  roses,  should  be  cut  back  most  severely. 
In  both  cases  it  is  well  to  remove  the  weak  growth  first.  Plants  set 
out  from  pots  will  usually  not  need  cutting  back. 

Hardy  roses,  especially  the  strong  field-grown  plants,  should  be  set 
in  the  early  fall  if  practicable.  It  is  desirable  to  get  them  out  just  as 
soon  as  they  have  shed  their  foliage.  If  not  then,  they  may  be  planted 
in  the  early  spring.  At  that  season  it  is  advisable  to  plant  them  as 
early  as  the  ground  is  dry  enough,  and  before  the  buds  have  started 
to  grow.  Dormant  pot-plants  may  also  bo  set  out  early,  but  they 
should  be  perfectly  inactive.  Setting  them  out  early  in  this  condi- 
tion is  preferable  to  waiting  till  they  are  in  foliage  and  full  bloom,  as 
is  so  often  required  by  buyers.  Growing  pot-plants  may  be  planted 
any  time  in  spring  after  danger  of  frost  is  past,  or  even  during  the  sum- 
mer, if  they  are  watered  and  shaded  for  a  few  days. 


394  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Open-ground  plants  should  be  set  about  as  deep  as  they  stood 
previously,  excepting  budded  or  grafted  plants,  which  should  be  set 
so  that  the  union  of  the  stock  and  graft  will  be  2  to  4  inches  be- 
low the  surface  of  the  ground.  Plants  from  pots  may  also  be  set  an 
inch  deeper  than  they  stood  in  the  pots.  The  soil  should  be  in  a  fri- 
able condition.  Roses  should  have  the  soil  compact  immediately 
about  their  roots;  but  we  should  distinguish  between  planting  roses 
and  setting  fence  posts.  The  dryer  the  soil  the  more  firmly  it  may  be 
pressed. 

As  a  general  statement,  it  may  be  said  that  roses  on  their  own  roots 
will  prove  more  satisfactory  for  the  general  run  of  planters  than  budded 
stock.  On  own-rooted  stock,  the  suckers  or  shoots  from  below  the 
surface  of  the  soil  will  be  of  the  same  kind,  whereas  with  budded  roses 
there  is  danger  of  the  stock  (usually  Manetti  or  dog  rose)  starting  into 
growth  and,  not  being  discovered,  outgrowing  the  bud,  taking  posses- 
sion, and  finally  killing  out  the  weaker  growth.  Still,  if  the  plants 
are  set  deep  enough  to  prevent  adventitious  buds  of  the  stock  from 
starting  and  the  grower  is  alert,  this  difficulty  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
There  is  no  question  but  that  finer  roses  may  be  grown  than  from  plants 
on  their  own  roots,  withstanding  the  heat  of  the  American  summer,  if 
the  grower  takes  the  proper  precautions. 

Pruning  roses. 

In  pruning  roses,  determine  whether  they  bloom  on  canes  arising 
each  year  from  the  ground  or  near  the  ground,  or  whether  they  make 
perennial  tops ;  also  form  a  clear  idea  whether  an  abundance  of  flowers 
is  wanted  for  garden  effects,  or  whether  large  specimen  blooms  are 
desired. 

If  one  is  pruning  the  hybrid  perpetual  or  remontant  roses  (which  are 
now  the  common  garden  roses),  he  cuts  back  all  very  vigorous  canes 
perhaps  one-half  their  length  immediately  after  the  June  bloom  is 
past  in  order  to  produce  new,  strong  shoots  for  fall  flowering,  and  also 
to  make  good  bottoms  for  the  next  year's  bloom.  Very  severe  sum- 
mer pruning,  however,  is  likely  to  produce  too  much  leafy  growth. 
In  the  fall,  all  canes  may  be  shortened  to  3  feet,  four  or  five  of  the 
best  canes  being  left  to  each  plant.  In  spring,  these  canes  are  again 
cut  back  to  fresh  wood,  leaving  perhaps  four  or  five  good  buds  on 


ROSE  395 

each  cane;  from  these  buds  the  flowering  canes  of  the  year  are  to 
come.  If  it  is  desired  to  secure  fewer  blooms,  but  of  the  best  size 
and  quality,  fewer  canes  may  be  left  and  only  two  or  three  new  shoots 
be  allowed  to  spring  from  each  one  the  next  spring. 

The  rule  in  trimming  all  cane-bearing  roses  is,  cut  hack  weak  grow- 
ing kinds  severely ;   strong- growers  moderately. 

Climbing  and  pillar  roses  need  only  the  weak  branches  and  the  tips 
shortened  in.  Other  hardy  kinds  will  usually  need  cutting  back  about 
one-fourth  or  one-third,  according  to  the  vigor  of  the  branches,  either 
in  the  spring  or  fall. 

The  everblooming  or  hybrid  tea  roses  will  need  to  have  all  dead 
wood  removed  at  the  time  of  uncovering  them  in  spring.  Some  prun- 
ing during  the  summer  is  also  useful  in  encouraging  growth  and  flow- 
ers. The  stronger  branches  that  have  flowered  may  be  cut  back  one- 
half  or  more. 

The  sweet  briers,  Austrian  and  rugosas  may  be  kept  in  bush  form; 
but  the  trunks  may  be  cut  out  at  the  ground  every  two  or  three  years, 
new  shoots  having  been  allowed  to  come  up  in  the  meantime.  All 
rampant  growths  should  be  cut  back  or  taken  out. 

Insects  and  diseases  of  roses  (see  pp.  205,  213). 

Most  of  the  summer  insects  that  trouble  the  rose  are  best  treated 
by  a  forceful  spray  of  clear  water.  This  should  be  done  early  in  the 
day  and  again  at  evening.  Those  having  city  water  or  good  spray 
pumps  will  find  this  an  easy  method  of  keeping  rose  pests  in  check. 
Those  without  these  facilities  may  use  whale-oil  soap,  fir-tree  oil,  good 
soap  suds,  the  tobacco  preparations,  or  Persian  insect  powder. 

The  rose-bug  or  chafer  should  be  hand-picked  or  knocked  ofl[  early 
in  the  morning  into  a  pan  of  coal  oil.     The  leaf-roller  must  be  crushed. 

The  mildews  are  controlled  by  the  various  sulfur  sprays. 

Winter  protection  of  roses. 

All  garden  roses  should  be  well  mulched  with  leaves  or  coarse  manure 
in  the  fall.  Mounding  earth  about  the  root  also  affords  excellent  protec- 
tion. Bending  over  the  tops  and  covering  with  grass  or  evergreen  boughs 
is  also  to  be  recommended  for  such  kinds  as  are  suspected  to  be  injured 
by  winter;   the  boughs  are  preferable  because  they  do  not  attract  mice. 


396  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

North  of  the  Ohio  River  all  the  everblooming  roses,  even  if  they 
will  endure  the  winter  unprotected,  will  be  better  for  protection.  This 
may  be  slight  southward,  but  should  be  thorough  northward.  The 
soil,  location,  and  surroundings  often  determine  the  extent  of  pro- 
tection. If  the  situation  is  not  so  favorable,  more  protection  will  be 
necessary.  Along  the  Ohio,  a  heap  of  stable  manure,  or  light  soil  that 
does  not  become  packed  and  water-logged,  placed  about  the  base  of 
the  plants,  will  carry  over  many  of  the  tea  roses.  The  tops  are  killed 
back;  but  the  plants  sprout  from  the  base  of  the  old  branches  in  the 
spring.  Bon  Silene,  Etoile  de  Lyon,  Perle  des  Jardins,  Mme.  Camille, 
and  others  are  readily  wintered  there  in  this  way. 

About  Chicago  {American  Florist,  x..  No.  358,  p.  929,  1895)  beds 
have  been  successfully  protected  by  bending  down  the  tops,  fastening 
them,  and  then  placing  over  and  among  the  plants  a  layer  of  dead  leaves 
to  the  depth  of  a  foot.  The  leaves  must  be  dry,  and  the  soil  also, 
before  applying  them  ;  this  is  very  essential.  After  the  leaves,  a 
layer  of  lawn-clippings,  highest  at  the  middle,  and  4  or  5  inches 
thick,  placed  over  the  leaves,  holds  them  in  place  and  sheds  water. 
This  protection  carries  over  the  hardiest  sorts  of  everblooming  roses, 
including  the  teas.  The  tops  are  killed  back  when  not  bent  down, 
but  this  protection  saves  the  roots  and  crowns;  when  bent  down,  the 
tops  went  through  without  damage.  Even  the  climbing  rose  Gloire 
de  Dijon  was  carried  through  the  winter  of  1894-1895  at  Chicago  with- 
out the  slightest  injury  to  the  branches. 

Strong  plants  of  the  everblooming  or  hybrid  tea  roses  can  now  be  had 
at  very  reasonable  rates,  and  rather  than  go  to  the  trouble  of  protecting 
them  in  the  fall,  many  persons  buy  such  as  they  need  for  bedding  pur- 
poses each  spring.  If  the  soil  of  the  beds  is  well  enriched,  the  plants  make 
a  rapid  and  luxuriant  growth,  blooming  freely  throughout  the  summer. 

If  one  desires  to  go  to  the  trouble,  he  may  protect  these  and  also  the 
tea  roses  even  in  the  northern  states  by  mounding  earth  about  the 
plants  and  then  building  a  little  shed  or  house  about  them  (or  inverting  a 
large  box  over  them)  and  packing  about  the  plants  with  leaves  or  straw. 
Some  persons  make  boxes  that  can  be  knocked  down  in  the  spring  and 
stored.  The  roof  should  shed  water.  This  method  is  better  than  tying 
the  plants  up  in  straw  and  burlaps.  Some  of  the  hybrid  teas  do  not 
need  so  much  protection  as  this,  even  in  central  New  York. 


ROSE  397 

Varieties  of  roses. 

The  selection  of  kinds  should  be  made  in  reference  to  the  locality 
and  purpose  for  which  the  roses  are  wanted.  For  bedding  roses,  those 
that  are  of  free-blooming  habit,  even  though  the  individual  flowers 
are  not  large,  are  the  ones  that  should  be  chosen.  For  permanent 
beds,  the  so-called  hybrid  perpetual  or  remontant  roses,  blooming  prin- 
cipally in  June,  will  be  found  to  be  hardy  at  the  North.  But  if  one 
can  give  them  proper  protection  during  the  winter,  then  the  Bengal, 
tea,  bourbon,  and  hybrid  teas  or  everblooming  roses,  may  be  selected. 

In  sections  where  the  temperature  does  not  fall  below  20°  above 
zero,  any  of  the  monthly  roses  will  live  without  protection.  At 
the  South  the  remontants  and  other  deciduous  roses  do  not  do  as  well 
as  farther  North.  The  tender  climbers  —  Noisettes,  climbing  teas, 
bengals,  and  others  —  are  excellent  for  pillars,  arbors,  and  verandas 
at  the  South,  but  are  fit  only  for  the  conservatory  in  those  parts  of 
the  country  where  there  is  severe  freezing.  For  the  open  air  at  the 
North  we  have  to  depend  for  climbing  roses  mainly  on  the  prairie 
chmbers,  and  the  ramblers  (polyanthas),  with  their  recent  pink  and 
white  varieties.  The  trailing  Rosa  Wichuraiana  is  also  a  useful  addi- 
tion as  an  excellent  hardy  rose  for  banks. 

For  the  northern  states  a  choice  small  list  is  as  follows:  hybrid 
perpetuals,  Mrs.  John  Laing,  Wilder,  Ulrich  Bruner,  Frau  Karl 
Druschki,  Paul  Neyron ;  dwarf  polyanthas,  Clothilde  Soupert,  Madame 
Herbert  Levavasseur  (Baby  Rambler),  Mile.  Cecile  Bruner;  hybrid  teas, 
Grus  an  Teplitz,  La  France,  Caroline  Testout,  Kaiserin  Victoria,  Kil- 
larney;  teas.  Pink  Maman  Cochet,  White  Maman  Cochet. 

The  following  classified  lists  embrace  some  of  the  varieties  of  recog- 
nized merit  for  various  purposes.  There  are  many  others,  but  it  is 
desirable  to  limit  the  list  to  a  few  good  kinds.  The  intending  planter 
should  consult  recent  catalogues. 

Free-blooming  monthly  roses  for  bedding.  —  These  are  recommended 
not  for  the  individual  beauty  of  the  flower  —  although  some  are  very 
fine  —  but  because  of  their  suitability  for  the  purpose  indicated.  If 
to  be  carried  over  winter  in  the  open  ground,  they  need  to  be  protected 
north  of  Washington.  In  beds,  pegging  down  the  branches  will  be 
found  desirable.  Those  starred  (*)  have  proved  hardy  in  southern 
Indiana  without  protection,  although  they  are  more  satisfactory  with 


398 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


it.  (The  name  of  the  class  to  which  the  variety  belongs  is  indicated 
by  the  initial  letter  or  letters  of  the  class  name :  C,  China;  T.,  Tea;  H. 
T.,  Hybrid  Tea;  B.,  Bourbon;  Pol.,  Polyantha;  N.,  Noisette;  H.  P., 
Hybrid  Perpetual;  Pr.,  Prairie  Climber) :  — 

Pink  — 


Red  — 

Sanguinea,  C. 
Agrippina,  C. 
Marion  Dingee,  T. 
*Meteor,  H.  T. 

Blush  — 
*Cels,  C. 

Mme.  Joseph  Schwartz,  T. 
*Souvenir  de  la  Malmaison,  B. 
Mignonette,  Pol. 

Yellow  — 
*Isabella  Sprunt,  T. 
Mosella  (Yellow  Soupert),  Pol. 


*Hermosa,  B. 

Souvenir  d'un  Ami,  T. 

Pink  Soupert,  Pol. 
*Gen.  Tartas,  T. 

White  — 

*Clothilde  Soupert,  Pol. 
*Sombreuil,  B. 
Snowflake,  T. 
Pacquerette,  Pol. 

Yellow  —  continued. 
La  Pactole,  T. 
Marie  van  Houtte,  T. 


Free-blooming  monthly  roses  for  summer  cutting  and  beds.  —  These 
are  somewhat  less  desirable  for  purely  bedding  purposes  than  the  pre- 
ceding; but  they  afford  finer  flowers  and  are  useful  for  their  fine  buds. 
Those  starred  (*)  are  hardy  in  southern  Indiana  without  protection :  — 


Red  — 
*Meteor. 

*Dinsmore,  H.  P. 
*Pierre  Guillot,  H.  T. 
Papa  Gontier,  T. 

White  — 

The  Bride,  T. 

Senator  McNaughton,  T. 
*Marie  Guillot,  T. 
*Mme.  Bavay,  T. 

Kaiserin  Augusta  Victoria,  H. 

Yellow  — 

Perle  des  Jardins,  T. 
Mme.  Welch,  T. 


T. 


Light  Pink  — 
*La  France,  H.  T. 
Countess  de  Labarthe,  T. 
*Appohne,  B. 

Dark  Pink  — 

^American  Beauty,  H.  T. 
*Duchess  of  Albany,  H.  T. 

Mme.  C.  Testout,  H.  T. 

Adam,  T. 
*Marie  Ducher,  T. 

Yellow  —  continued. 
Sunset,  T. 
Marie  van  Houtte,  T. 


HOSE  399 

Hybrid  perpetual,  or  remontant^  roses.  —  These  do  not  flower  as 
freely  as  the  groups  previously  mentioned;  but  the  individual  flowers 
are  very  large  and  unequaled  by  any  other  roses.  They  flower  chiefly 
in  June.  Those  named  are  among  the  finest  sorts,  and  some  of  them 
flower  more  or  less  continuously :  — 

Red  -~  Pink  — 

Alfred  Colomb.  Mrs.  John  Laing. 

Earl  of  Dufferin.  Paul  Neyron. 

Glorie  de  Margottin.  Queen  of  Queens. 

Anna  de  Diesbach.  Magna  Charta. 

Ulrich  Brunner.  Baroness  Rothschild. 

White  —■ 
Margaret  Dickson.     Merveille  de  Lyon. 

Hardy  climbing,  or  pillar  roses.  —  These  bloom  but  once  during  the 
season.  They  come  after  the  June  roses,  however,  —  a  good  season  — 
and  at  that  time  are  masses  of  flowers.   They  require  only  slight  pruning. 

White  —  Pink  — 

Baltimore  Belle,  Pr.  Queen  of  the  Prairies,  Pr. 

Washington,  N.  Tennessee  Belle,  Pr. 

Rosa  Wichuraiana  (traihng).  Climbing  Jules  Margotten,  H.  P. 

Crimson  —  Yellow  — 

Crimson  Rambler,  Pol.  Yellow  Rambler,  Pol. 

Tender  climbi?ig,  or  pillar  roses.  For  conservatories,  and  the 
South  as  far  north  as  Tennessee.  —  Those  with  an  asterisk  (*)  are  half- 
hardy  north  of  the  Ohio  River,  or  about  as  hardy  as  the  hybrid  teas. 
These  need  no  pruning  except  a  slight  shortening-in  of  the  shoots  and 
a  thinning  out  of  the  weak  growth. 

Yellow  —  White  — 

Marechal  Niel,  N.  *Aimee  Vibert,  N. 

Solfaterre,  N.  Bennett's  Seedling  (Ayrshire). 

*Gloire  de  Dijon,  T.  White  Banksia  (Banksiana). 
Yellow  Banksia  (Banksiana). 

Red  — 

*Reine  Marie  Henriette,  T.     James  Sprunt,  C. 


400  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Roses  in  winter  (by  C.  E.  Hunn). 

Although  the  growing  of  roses  under  glass  must  be  left  chiefly  to 
florists,  advice  may  be  useful  to  those  who  have  conservatories :  — 

When  growing  forcing  roses  for  winter  flowers,  florists  usually  pro- 
vide raised  beds,  in  the  best-lighted  houses  they  have.  The  bottom 
of  the  bed  or  bench  is  left  with  cracks  between  the  boards  for  drain- 
age ;  the  cracks  are  covered  with  inverted  strips  of  sod,  and  the  bench 
is  then  covered  with  4  or  5  inches  of  fresh,  fibrous  loam.  This  is  made 
from  rotted  sods,  with  decayed  manure  incorporated  at  the  rate  of  about 
one  part  in  four.  Sod  from  any  drained  pasture-land  makes  good  soil. 
The  plants  are  set  on  the  bed  in  the  spring  or  early  summer,  from  12  to 
18  inches  apart,  and  are  grown  there  all  summer. 

During  the  winter  they  are  kept  at  a  temperature  of  58°  to  60°  at 
night,  and  from  5°  to  10°  warmer  during  the  day.  The  heating  pipes 
are  often  run  under  the  benches,  not  because  the  rose  likes  bottom 
heat,  but  to  economize  space  and  to  assist  in  drying  out  the  beds  in 
case  of  their  becoming  too  wet.  The  greatest  care  is  required  in  water- 
ing, in  guarding  the  temperature,  and  in  ventilation.  Draughts  result 
in  checks  to  the  growth  and  in  mildewed  foliage. 

Dryness  of  the  air,  especially  from  fire  heat,  is  followed  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  minute  red  spider  on  the  leaves.  The  aphis,  or  green 
plant  louse,  appears  under  all  conditions,  and  must  be  kept  down  by 
the  use  of  some  of  the  tobacco  preparations  (several  of  which  are  on 
the  market). 

For  the  red  spider,  the  chief  means  of  control  is  syringing  with  either 
clear  or  soapy  water.  If  the  plants  are  intelligently  ventilated  and 
given,  at  all  times,  as  much  fresh  air  as  possible,  the  red  spider  is  less 
likely  to  appear.  For  mildew,  which  is  easily  recognized  by  its  white, 
powdery  appearance  on  the  foliage,  accompanied  with  more  or  less 
distortion  of  the  leaves,  the  remedy  is  sulfur  in  some  form  or  other. 
The  flowers  of  sulfur  may  be  dusted  thinly  over  the  foliage;  enough 
merely  slightly  to  whiten  the  foliage  is  sufficient.  It  may  be  dusted 
on  from  the  hand  in  a  broadcast  way,  or  applied  with  a  powder-bellows, 
which  is  a  better  and  less  wasteful  method.  Again,  a  paint  composed 
of  sulfur  and  linseed  oil  may  be  applied  to  a  part  of  one  of  the  steam 
or  hot-water  heating  pipes.     The  fumes  arising  from  this  are  not 


ROSE  —  SMILAX  401 

agreeable  to  breathe,  but  fatal  to  mildew.  Again,  a  little  sulfur  may 
be  sprinkled  here  and  there  on  the  cooler  parts  of  the  greenhouse  flue. 
Under  no  circumstances,  however,  ignite  any  sulfur  in  a  greenhouse. 
The  vapor  of  burning  sulfur  is  death  to  plants. 

Propagation  of  house  roses.  —  The  writer  has  known  women  who 
could  root  roses  with  the  greatest  ease.  They  would  simply  break  off 
a  branch  of  the  rose,  insert  it  in  the  flower-bed,  cover  it  with  a  bell- 
jar,  and  in  a  few  weeks  they  would  have  a  strong  plant.  Again  they 
would  resort  to  layering;  in  which  case  a  branch,  notched  halfway 
through  on  the  lower  side,  was  bent  to  the  ground  and  pegged  down  so 
that  the  notched  part  was  covered  with  a  few  inches  of  soil.  The 
layered  spot  was  watered  from  time  to  time.  After  three  or  four 
weeks  roots  were  sent  forth  from  the  notch  and  the  branch  or  buds 
began  to  grow,  when  it  was  known  that  the  layer  had  formed  roots. 

Several  years  ago  a  friend  took  a  cheese-box,  filled  it  with  sharp 
sand  to  the  brim,  supported  it  in  a  tub  of  water  so  that  the  lower  half- 
inch  of  the  box  was  immersed.  The  sand  was  packed  down,  sprinkled, 
and  single-joint  rose  cuttings,  with  a  bud  and  a  leaf  near  the  top,  were 
inserted  almost  their  whole  length  in  the  sand.  This  was  in  July,  a 
hot  month,  when  it  is  usually  difficult  to  root  any  kind  of  cutting: 
moreover,  the  box  stood  on  a  southern  slope,  facing  the  hot  sun,  with- 
out a  particle  of  shade.  The  only  attention  given  the  box  was  to  keep 
the  water  high  enough  in  the  tub  to  touch  the  bottom  of  the  cheese- 
box.  In  about  three  weeks  he  took  out  three  or  four  dozen  of  as 
nicely  rooted  cuttings  as  could  have  been  grown  in  a  greenhouse. 

The  "saucer  system,"  in  which  cuttings  are  inserted  in  wet  sand 
contained  in  a  saucer  an  inch  or  two  deep,  to  be  exposed  at  all  times 
to  the  full  sunshine,  is  of  a  similar  nature.  The  essentials  are,  to  give 
the  cuttings  the  "full  sun"  and  to  keep  the  sand  saturated  with 
water. 

Whatever  method  is  used,  if  cuttings  are  to  be  transplanted  after 
rooting,  it  is  important  to  pot  them  off  in  small  pots  as  soon  as  they 
have  a  cluster  of  roots  one-half  inch  or  an  inch  long.  Leaving  them 
too  long  in  the  sand  weakens  the  cutting. 

Smilax  of  the  florists  is  closely  allied  to  asparagus  (it  is  Asparagus 
medeoloides  of  the  botanists).     While  it  cannot  be  recommended  for 
2d 


402  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

house  culture,  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  grown  and  the  uses  to 
which  the  festoons  of  leaves  may  be  put  entitle  it  to  a  place  in  the 
conservatory  or  greenhouse. 

Seed  sown  in  pots  or  boxes  in  January  or  February,  the  plants  shifted 
as  needed  until  planted  on  the  bench  in  August,  will  grow  fine  strings 
of  green  by  the  holidays.  The  temperature  should  be  rather  high. 
The  plants  should  be  set  on  low  benches,  giving  as  much  room  as  pos- 
sible overhead.  Green-colored  strings  should  be  used  for  the  vines  to 
climb  on,  the  vines  frequently  syringed  to  keep  down  the  red  spider, 
which  is  very  destructive  to  this  plant,  and  liquid  manure  given  as  the 
vines  grow.  The  soil  should  contain  a  good  proportion  of  sand  and 
be  enriched  with  well-rotted  manure. 

After  the  first  strings  are  cut,  a  second  growth  fully  as  good  as  the 
first  may  be  had  by  cleaning  up  the  plants  and  top-dressing  the  soil 
with  rotted  manure.  Sometimes  the  old  roots  are  kept  three  or  four 
years.  Slightly  shading  the  house  through  August  will  add  to  the 
color  of  the  leaves.  The  odor  from  a  vine  of  smilax  thickly  covered 
with  the  small  flowers  is  very  agreeable. 

Stocks.  —  The  Ten-weeks  and  the  biennial  or  Brompton  stocks 
(species  of  Maithiola)  are  found  in  nearly  all  old-fashioned  gardens. 
Most  gardens  are  thought  to  be  incomplete  without  them,  and 
the  use  of  the  biennial  flowering  species  as  house-plants  is  increas- 
ing. 

The  Ten-weeks  stock  is  usually  grown  from  seed  sown  in  hotbeds  or 
boxes  in  March.  The  seedlings  are  transplanted  several  times  pre- 
vious to  being  planted  out  in  early  May.  At  each  transplanting  the 
soil  should  be  made  a  little  richer.  The  double  flowers  will  be  more 
numerous  when  the  soil  is  rich. 

The  biennial  species  (or  Brompton  stocks)  should  be  sown  the 
season  previous  to  that  in  which  flowers  are  wanted,  the  plants  win- 
tered over  in  a  cool  house,  and  grown  in  the  following  spring.  They 
may  be  planted  out  through 'the  summer  and  lifted  into  pots  in  August 
or  September  for  winter  flowering.  These  may  be  increased  by  cut- 
tings taken  from  the  side  shoots;  but  the  sowing  of  seed  is  a  surer 
method,  and  unless  an  extra  fine  variety  is  to  be  saved,  it  would  be 
the  best  one  to  pursue.     Height,  10  to  15  inches. 


SWEET  PEA  —  S  WAiySONA  403 

Sweet  pea.  —  A  hardy,  tendril-climbing  annual,  universally  prized 
as  an  outdoor  garden  plant;  also  forced  to  some  extent  by  florists. 
On  any  occasion  the  sweet  pea  is  in  place.  A  bouquet  of  shaded  colors, 
with  a  few  sprays  of  galium  or  the  perennial  gypsophila,  makes  one  of 
the  choicest  of  table  decorations. 

Deep,  mellow  soil,  early  planting,  and  heavy  mulching  suit 
them  admirably.  It  is  easy  to  make  soils  too  rich  in  nitrogen  for 
sweet  peas;  in  such  case,  they  will  run  to  vine  at  the  expense  of 
flowers. 

Sow  the  seeds  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  fit  to  work  in  the  spring, 
making  a  drill  5  inches  deep.  Sow  thickly  and  cover  with  2 
inches  of  earth.  When  the  plants  have  made  2  or  3  inches' 
growth  above  the  earth,  fill  the  drill  nearly  full,  leaving  a  slight  de- 
pression in  which  water  may  be  caught.  After  the  soil  is  thoroughly 
soaked  with  water,  a  good  mulch  will  hold  the  moisture.  To  have  the 
ground  ready  in  early  spring,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  trench  the  ground  in 
the  fall.  The  top  of  the  soil  then  dries  out  very  quickly  in  spring  and 
is  left  in  good  physical  condition. 

In  the  middle  and  southern  states  the  seed  may  be  planted  in  fall, 
particularly  in  lighter  soils. 

Frequent  syringing  with  clear  water  will  keep  off  the  red  spider  that 
often  destroys  the  foliage,  and  attention  to  picking  the  seed  pods 
will  lengthen  the  season  of  bloom.  If  the  finest  flowers  are  wanted, 
do  not  let  the  plants  stand  less  than  8  to  12  inches  apart. 

A  succession  of  sowings  may  be  made  at  intervals  through  May 
and  June,  and  a  fair  fall  crop  secured  if  care  is  taken  to  water  and 
mulch;  but  the  best  results  will  be  secured  with  the  very  early  plant- 
ing. When  the  plants  are  watered,  apply  enough  to  soak  the  soil, 
and  do  not  water  frequently. 

Swainsona.  —  This  plant  has  been  called  the  winter  sweet  pea,  but 
the  flowers  are  not  fragrant.  It  makes  a  very  desirable  house  plant, 
blooming  through  the  late  winter  and  early  spring  months.  The  blos- 
soms, which  resemble  those  of  the  pea,  are  borne  in  long  racemes.  The 
foliage  is  finely  cut,  resembling  small  locust  leaves,  and  adds  to  the 
beauty  of  the  plant,  the  whole  effect  being  exceedingly  graceful. 
Swainsona  may  be  grown  from  seed  or  cuttings.     Cuttings  taken  in  late 


404  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

winter  should  make  blooming  plants  in  summer;  these  plants  may  be 
used  for  winter  bloom,  but  it  is  better  to  raise  new  plants.  Some 
gardeners  cut  back  old  plants  to  secure  new  blooming  wood;  this  is 
desirable  if  the  plants  grow  more  or  less  permanently  in  the  greenhouse 
border,  but  for  pots  new  plants  should  be  grown. 

The  common  swainsona  is  white-flowered;  but  there  is  a  good  rose- 
colored  variety. 

Tuberose  (properly  tuber-ose,  not  tube-rose,  from  its  specific  name, 
Polianthes  tuberosa) .  —  This  plant,  with  its  tall  spikes  of  waxen  and 
fragrant  white  flowers,  is  well  known  in  the  middle  latitudes,  but  usu- 
ally requires  more  heat  and  a  longer  season  than  are  commonly  pres- 
ent in  the  most  northern  states. 

The  tuberose  is  a  strong  feeder,  and  loves  warmth,  plenty  of  water 
while  growing,  and  a  deep,  rich,  and  well-drained  soil.  The  bulbs  may 
be  set  in  the  garden  or  border  the  last  of  May  or  in  June,  covering  them 
about  1  inch  deep.  Preparatory  to  planting,  the  old  dead  roots  at 
the  base  of  the  bulb  should  be  cut  away  and  the  pips  or  young  bulbs 
about  the  sides  removed.  After  keeping  them  till  their  scars  are 
dried  over,  these  pips  may  be  planted  5  or  6  inches  apart  in  drills, 
and  with  good  soil  and  cultivation  they  will  make  blooming  bulbs  for 
the  .following  year. 

Before  planting  the  large  bulbs,  it  may  be  well  to  examine  the 
points,  to  determine  whether  they  are  likely  to  bloom.  The  tuberose 
blooms  but  once.  If  there  is  a  hard,  woody  piece  of  old  stem  in  the 
midst  of  the  dry  scales  at  the  apex  of  the  bulb,  it  has  bloomed,  and  is 
of  no  value  except  for  producing  pips.  Likewise  if,  instead  of  a  solid 
core,  there  is  a  brownish,  dry  cavity  extending  from  the  tip  down  into 
the  middle  of  the  bulb,  the  heart  has  rotted  or  dried  up,  and  the  bulb 
is  worthless  as  far  as  blooming  is  concerned. 

Bulbs  of  blooming  size  set  in  the  border  in  June  flower  toward  the 
close  of  September.  They  may  be  made  to  flower  three  or  four  weeks 
sooner  by  starting  them  early  in  some  warm  place,  where  they  may 
be  given  a  temperature  of  about  60°  to  70°.  Prepare  the  bulbs  as 
above,  and  place  them  with  their  tips  just  above  the  surface  in  about 
3-  or  4-inch  pots,  in  light  sandy  soil.  Water  them  thoroughly,  after- 
wards sparingly,   till    the   leaves    have   made   considerable    growth. 


TUBEROSE — TULIPS  405 

These  plants  may  be  turned  out  into  the  open  ground  the  last  of  May- 
or in  June,  and  will  probably  flower  in  early  September. 

In  the  northern  states,  if  planted  in  the  border  they  will  not  start 
into  growth  until  the  ground  has  become  thoroughly  warm,  —  usually 
after  the  middle  of  June,  —  making  the  season  before  frost  too  short 
for  their  perfect  growth  and  flower.  If  any  danger  of  fall  frost  is 
feared,  they  may  be  lifted  into  pots  or  boxes  and  taken  into  the  house, 
when  they  will  bloom  without  a  check.  As  with  other  bulbs,  a  sandy 
soil  will  suit. 

Just  before  frost  dig  up  the  bulbs,  cut  off  the  tops  to  within  2 
inches  of  the  apex  of  the  bulb.  They  may  then  be  placed  in  shallow 
boxes  and  left  out  in  the  sun  and  air  for  a  week  or  more,  to  cure. 
Each  evening,  if  the  nights  are  cold,  they  should  be  removed  to  some 
room  where  the  temperature  will  not  fall  below  40°.  When  the  outer" 
scales  have  become  dry,  the  remaining  soil  may  be  shaken  off  and  the 
bulbs  stored  away  in  shallow  boxes  for  the  winter.  They  keep  best 
in  a  temperature  of  45°  to  50°.     It  should  never  fall  below  40°. 

The  Dwarf  Pearl,  originating  in  1870,  has  long  been  popular,  and  is 
still  so  with  many.  But  others  have  come  to  prefer  the  old,  tall 
kind,  the  flowers  of  which,  even  if  not  so  large,  are  perfect  in  form  and 
seem  to  open  better. 

Tulips  are  undoubtedly  the  most  prized  of  all  early  spring  bulbs. 
They  are  hardy  and  easy  to  grow.  They  also  bloom  well  in  winter  in 
a  sunny  climate.  The  garden  bed  will  last  several  years  if  well  cared 
for,  but  most  satisfactory  bloom  is  secured  if  the  old  bulbs  are  taken 
up  every  two  or  three  years  and  replanted,  all  the  inferior  ones  being 
cast  aside.  When  the  stock  begins  to  run  out,  buy  anew.  The  old 
stock,  if  not  entirely  spent,  may  be  planted  in  the  shrubbery  or  peren- 
nial borders. 

September  is  the  best  time  for  planting  tulips,  but  as  the  beds  are 
usually  occupied  at  this  time,  planting  is  commonly  postponed  till 
October  or  November.  For  garden  culture  the  single  early  tulips  are 
the  best.  There  are  excellent  early  double-flowered  varieties.  Some 
prefer  the  double,  as  their  flowers  last  longer.  Late  tulips  are  gorgeous, 
but  occupy  the  beds  too  long  in  the  spring.  While  tulips  are  hardy, 
they  are  benefited  by  a  winter  mulch. 


406  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

In  working  out  design  patterns,  the  utmost  care  should  be  used 
to  have  the  hnes  and  curves  uniform,  which  is  only  to  be  secured  by 
marking  out  the  design,  and  careful  planting.  Formal  planting  is, 
however,  by  no  means  necessary  for  pleasing  effects.  Borders,  lines, 
and  masses  of  single  colors,  or  groups  of  mixed  colors  which  harmonize, 
are  always  in  order  and  pleasing.  Clear  colors  are  preferable  to  neu- 
tral tints.  As  varieties  vary  in  height  and  season  of  blooming,  only 
named  varieties  should  be  ordered  if  uniform  bedding  effects  are  de- 
sired.    See  pp.  286  and  345  ;  Fig.  255. 

Violet.  —  While  the  culture  of  violets  as  house-plants  rarely  proves 
successful,  there  is  no  reason  why  a  good  supply  may  not  be  had  else- 
where through  the  greater  part  of  the  winter  and  the  spring  months. 

A  sheltered  location  being  selected,  young  plants  from  runners  may 
be  set  in  August  or  September.  Have  the  ground  fertile  and  well 
drained.  These  plants  will  make  fine  crowns  by  December,  and  often 
will  bloom  before  weather  sufficiently  cold  to  freeze  them. 

To  have  flowers  through  the  winter,  it  will  be  necessary  to  afford 
some  protection.  This  may  best  be  accomplished  by  building  a  frame 
of  boards  large  enough  to  cover  the  plants,  making  the  frame  in  the 
same  w^ay  as  for  a  hotbed,  4  to  6  inches  higher  at  the  back  than 
the  front.  Cover  the  frame  with  sash  or  boards,  and  as  the  weather 
becomes  severe,  mats  or  straw  should  be  placed  over  and  around  the 
frame  to  protect  the  plants  from  freezing.  Whenever  the  weather 
will  permit,  the  covering  should  be  removed  and  air  admitted,  but 
no  harm  will  come  if  the  frames  are  not  disturbed  for  several  weeks. 
Much  sunlight  and  a  high  temperature  through  the  middle  of  winter 
are  to  be  avoided,  for  if  the  plants  are  stimulated,  a  shorter  period  of 
bloom  will  result.  In  April  the  frame  may  be  removed,  the  plants 
yielding  the  later  part  of  the  crop  without  protection. 

Violets  belong  with  the  "  cool "  plants  of  florists.  When  well  hard- 
ened off,  considerable  frost  does  not  harm  them.  They  should  always 
be  kept  stocky.  Start  a  new  lot  from  runner-plants  each  year.  They 
thrive  in  a  temperature  of  55°  to  65°.     Pages  190,  206. 

Wax-plant.  —  The  wax-plant,  or  hoya,  is  one  of  the  commonest  of 
window-garden  plants,  and  yet  it  is  one  that  house-gardeners  usually 


WAX-PLANT  40T 

have  difficulty  in  flowering.     However,  it  is  one  of  the  easiest  plants 
to  manage  if  a  person  understands  its  nature. 

It  is  naturally  a  summer-blooming  plant,  and  should  rest  in  winter. 
In  the  winter,  keep  it  just  alive  in  a  cool  and  rather  dry  place.  If 
the  temperature  does  not  go  above  50°  Fahr.,  so  much  the  better; 
neither  should  it  go  much  lower.  In  late  winter  or  spring,  the  plant 
is  brought  out  to  warm  temperature,  given  water,  and  started  into 
growth.  The  old  flower-stems  should  not  be  cut  off,  since  new  flowers 
come  from  them  as  well  as  from  the  new  wood.  When  it  is  brought 
out  to  be  started  into  growth,  it  may  be  repotted,  sometimes  into  a 
size  larger  pot,  but  always  with  more  or  less  fresh  earth.  The  plant 
should  increase  in  value  each  year.  In  conservatories,  it  is  sometimes 
planted  out  in  the  ground  and  allowed  to  run  over  a  wall,  in  which 
case  it  will  reach  a  height  of  many  feet. 


CHAPTER   IX 

THE   GROWING   OF   THE    FRUIT   PLANTS 

Fruits  should  be  counted  a  regular  part  of  the  home  prem- 
ises. There  are  few  residence  plots  so  small  that  fruits  of  some 
kind  cannot  be  grown.  If  there  is  no  opportunity  for  planting 
the  orchard  fruits  by  themselves  at  regular  intervals,  there  are 
still  boundaries  to  the  place,  and  along  these  boundaries  and 
scattered  in  the  border  masses,  apples,  pears,  and  other  fruits 
may  be  planted. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  fruits  will  thrive  as  well  in  these 
places  as  in  well-tilled  orchards,  but  something  can  be  done,  and 
the  results  are  often  very  satisfactory.  Along  a  back  fence  or 
walk,  one  may  plant  a  row  or  two  of  currants,  gooseberries,  or 
blackberries,  or  he  may  make  a  trellis  of  grapes.  If  there  are 
no  trees  near  the  front  or  back  of  the  border,  the  fruit  plants 
may  be  placed  close  together  in  the  row  and  the  greatest  de- 
velopment of  the  tops  may  be  allowed  to  take  place  laterally. 
If  one  has  a  back  yard  fifty  feet  on  a  side,  there  will  be  oppor- 
tunity, in  three  borders,  for  six  to  eight  fruit  trees,  and 
bush-fruits  between,  without  encroaching  greatly  on  the  lawn. 
In  such  cases,  the  trees  are  planted  just  inside  the  boundary 
line. 

A  suggestion  for  the  arrangement  of  a  fruit  garden  of  one  acre 
is  given  in  Fig.  270.  Such  a  plan  allows  of  continuous  cultiva- 
tion in  one  direction  and  facilitates  spraying,  pruning,  and 
harvesting;  and  the  intermediate  spaces  may  be  used  for  the 
growing  of  annual  crops,  at  least  for  a  few  years. 

408 


THE   GROWING    OF   THE  FRUIT  PLANTS 


409 


Dwarf  fruit-trees. 

For  very  small  areas,  and  for  the  growing  of  the  finest  dessert 
fruits,  dwarf  trees  may  be  grown  of  apples  and  pears. 


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270.    Plan  for  a  fruit-garden  of  one  acre.     From  "  Principles  of  Fruit-growing." 

apple  is  dwarfed  when  it  is  worked  on  certain  small  and  slow- 
growing  types  of  apple  trees,  as  the  paradise  and  doucin  stocks. 
The  paradise  is  the  better,  if  one  desires  a  very  small  and  pro- 
ductive tree  or  bush.     The  doucin  makes  only  a  half-dwarf. 


410  MANUAL    OF   GABDENING 

The  pear  is  dwarfed  when  it  is  grown  on  the  root  of  quince. 
Dwarf  pears  may  be  planted  as  close  as  ten  feet  apart  each  way, 
although  more  room  should  be  given  them  if  possible.  Paradise 
dwarfs  (apples)  may  be  planted  eight  or  ten  feet  each  way, 
and  doucin  twice  that  distance.  All  dwarfs  should  be  kept 
small  by  vigorous  annual  heading-in.  If  the  tree  is  making 
good  growth,  say  one  to  three  feet,  a  half  to  two-thirds  of  the 
growth  may  be  taken  off  in  winter.  A  dwarf  apple  or  pear 
tree  should  be  kept  within  a  height  of  twelve  or  fifteen  feet,  and 
it  should  not  attain  this  stature  in  less  than  ten  or  twelve  years. 
A  dwarf  apple  tree,  in  full  bearing,  should  average  from  two 
pecks  to  a  bushel  of  first  quality  apples,  and  a  dwarf  pear  should 
do  somewhat  more  than  this. 

If  one  grows  dwarf  fruit  trees,  he  should  expect  to  give  them 
extra  attention  in  pruning  and  cultivating.  Only  in  very  ex- 
ceptional instances  can  the  dwarf  fruits  be  expected  to  equal  the 
free-growing  standards  in  commercial  results.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  of  dwarf  apples,  which  are  practically  home-garden 
plants  in  this  country.  This  being  the  case,  only  the  choice 
dessert  fruits  should  be  attempted  on  paradise  and  doucin  roots. 
For  home  gardens  the  paradise  will  probably  give  more  satis- 
faction than  the  doucin. 

If  the  tree  is  taken  young,  it  may  be  trained  along  a  wall  or 
on  an  espalier  trellis;  and  in  such  conditions  the  fruits  should 
be  of  extra  quality  if  the  varieties  are  choice.  Plate  XXII 
shows  the  training  of  a  dwarf  pear  on  a  wall.  This  tree  has  been 
many  years  in  good  bearing.  In  most  parts  of  the  country  a 
southern  wal'  exposure  is  likely  to  force  the  bloom  so  early  as  to 
invite  danger  from  spring  frosts. 

Age  and  size  of  trees. 

For  ordinary  planting,  it  is  desirable  to  choose  trees  two  years 
from  bud  or  graft,  except  in  case  of  the  peach,  which  should  be 
one  year  old.     Many  growers  find  strong  one-year  trees  prefer- 


THE   GROWING   OF   THE  FRUIT  PLANTS  411 

able.  A  good  size  is  about  five-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter 
just  above  the  collar,  and  five  feet  in  height,  and  if  they  have 
been  well  grown,  trees  of  this  size  will  give  as  good  results  as 
those  seven-eighths  of  an  inch,  or  more,  in  diameter,  and  six 
or  seven  feet  high.  Buy  first-class  trees  of  reliable  dealers. 
It  rarely  pays  to  try  to  save  a  few  cents  on  a  tree,  for  quality  is 
likely  to  be  sacrificed. 

If  properly  packed,  trees  can  be  shipped  long  distances  and 
may  do  as  well  as  those  grown  in  a  home  nursery,  but  it  will 
generally  be  best  to  secure  the  trees  as  near  home  as  possible, 
provided  the  quality  of  the  trees  and  the  price  are  satisfactory. 
When  a  large  number  is  to  be  purchased,  it  will  be  better  to 
send  the  order  direct  to  some  reliable  nursery,  or  to  select 
the  trees  in  person,  than  to  rely  on  tree  peddlers. 

Pruning  (see  p.  139). 

Having  planted  the  trees,  they  should  be  carefully  pruned. 
As  a  rule,  trees  with  low  heads  are  desirable.  Peaches  and  dwarf 
pears  should  have  the  lower  branches  from  12  to  24  inches  above 
ground,  and  sweet  cherries  and  standard  pears  generally  not 
over  30  inches;  plums,  sour  cherries,  and  apples  may  be  some- 
what higher,  but  if  properly  handled,  when  started  3  feet 
from  the  ground,  the  tops  will  not  be  in  the  way  of  the  culti- 
vation of  the  orchard. 

For  all  except  the  peach  in  the  northern  states,  a  pyramidal 
form  will  be  desirable.  To  secure  this,  four  or  five  side  branches 
with  three  or  four  buds  each,  should  be  allowed  to  grow  and  the 
center  shoot  should  be  cut  off  at  a  height  of  10  to  12  inches. 
After  growth  has  started,  the  trees  should  be  occasionally  exam- 
ined and  all  surplus  shoots  removed,  thus  throwing  the  full 
vigor  of  the  plant  into  those  that  remain.  As  a  rule  three  or 
four  shoots  on  each  branch  may  be  left  to  advantage.  The 
following  spring  the  shoots  should  be  cut  back  one-half  and 
about  half  of  the  branches  removed      Care  should  be  taken  to 


412  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

avoid  crotches,  and  if  any  of  the  branches  cross,  so  that  they  are 
Hkely  to  rub,  one  or  the  other  should  be  cut  out.  This  cutting- 
back  and  trimming-out  should  be  continued  for  two  or  three 
years,  and  in  the  case  of  dwarf  pear  trees  regular  heading-back 
each  year  should  be  continued.  Although  an  occasional  head- 
ing-back will  be  of  advantage  to  the  trees,  apple,  plum,  and 
cherry  trees  that  have  been  properly  pruned  while  young  will 
not  require  so  much  attention  after  they  come  into  bearing. 

Heavy  pruning  of  the  top  tends  to  the  production  of  wood; 
therefore  the  severe  pruning  of  orchard  trees,  following  three 
or  four  years  of  neglect,  sets  the  trees  into  heavy  wood-bearing, 
and  makes  them  more  vigorous.  Such  treatment  generally 
tends  away  from  fruit-bearing.  This  heavy  pruning  is  usually 
necessary  in  neglected  orchards,  however,  to  bring  trees  back 
into  shape  and  to  revitalize  them;  but  the  best  pruning-treat- 
ment  of  an  orchard  is  to  prune  it  a  little  every  year.  It  should 
be  so  pruned  that  the  tops  of  the  trees  will  be  open,  that  no  two 
limbs  will  interfere  with  each  other,  and  so  that  the  fruit  itself 
will  not  be  so  abundant  as  to  overload  the  tree. 

In  general,  it  is  best  to  prune  orchard  trees  late  in  winter  or 
early  in  spring.  It  is  sometimes  better,  however,  to  leave  peaches 
and  other  tender  fruits  until  after  the  buds  have  swollen,  or 
even  after  the  flowers  have  fallen,  in  order  that  one  may  deter- 
mine how  much  they  have  been  injured  by  the  winter.  Grape 
vines  should  be  pruned  in  winter  or  not  later  (in  New  York) 
than  the  first  of  March.  If  pruned  later  than  this,  they  may 
bleed.  The  above  remarks  will  apply  to  other  trees  as  well  as 
to  fruits. 

Thinning  the  fruit. 

If  the  best  size  and  quality  of  fruit  are  desired,  care  must  be 
taken  to  see  that  the  plant  does  not  overbear. 

Thinning  of  fruit  has  four  general  uses :  to  cause  the  remaining 
fruit  to  grow  larger;  to  increase  the  chances  of  annual  crops ; 


THE   GROWING    OF   THE  FRUIT  PLANTS  413 

to  save  the  vitality  of  the  tree;  to  enable  one  to  combat  insects 
and  diseases  by  destroying  the  injured  fruit. 

The  thinning  is  nearly  always  performed  soon  after  the  fruit 
is  thoroughly  set.  It  is  then  possible  to  determine  which  of  the 
fruits  are  likely  to  persist.  Peaches  are  usually  thinned  when 
they  are  the  size  of  one's  thumb.  If  thinned  before  this  time, 
they  are  so  small  that  it  is  difficult  to  pick  them  off;  and 
it  is  not  so  easy  to  see  the  work  of  the  curculio  and  thereby  to 
select  the  injured  fruits.  Similar  remarks  apply  to  other  fruits. 
The  general  tendency  is,  even  with  those  who  thin  their 
fruits^  not  to  thin  enough.  It  is  usually  safer  to  take  off 
what  would  seem  to  be  too  many  than  not  to  take  off  enough. 
The  remaining  specimens  are  better.  Varieties  that  tend  to 
overbear  profit  very  greatly  by  thinning.  This  is  notably  the 
case  with  many  Japanese  plums,  which,  if  not  thinned,  are 
very  inferior. 

Thinning  may  also  be  accomplished  by  pruning.  Cutting 
off  the  fruit-buds  will  have  the  effect  of  removing  the  fruit.  In 
the  case  of  tender  fruits,  as  peaches,  however,  it  may  not  be 
advisable  to  thin  very  heavily  by  means  of  pruning,  since  the 
fruit  may  be  still  further  thinned  by  the  remaining  days  of  win- 
ter, by  late  spring  frost,  or  by  the  leaf-curl  or  other  disease. 
However,  the  proper  pruning  of  a  peach  tree  in  winter  is,  in 
part,  a  thinning  of  the  fruit.  The  peach  is  borne  on  the  wood  of 
the  previous  season's  growth.  The  best  fruits  are  to  be  expected 
on  the  strongest  and  heaviest  growth.  It  is  the  practice  of 
peach-growers  to  remove  all  the  weak  and  immature  wood  from 
the  inside  of  the  tree.  This  has  the  effect  of  thinning  out  the 
inferior  fruit  and  allowing  the  energy  of  the  tree  to  be  expended 
on  the  remainder. 

Apples  are  rarely  thinned;  but,  in  many  cases,  thinning  can 
be  done  with  profit. 


414  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Washing  and  scrubbing  the  trees. 

The  washing  of  orchard  trees  is  an  old  practice.  It  usually 
results  in  making  a  tree  more  vigorous.  One  reason  is  that  it 
destroys  insects  and  fungi  that  lodge  underneath  the  bark;  but 
probably  the  chief  reason  is  that  it  softens  the  bark  and  allows 
the  trunk  to  expand.  It  is  possible,  also,  that  the  potash  from 
the  soap  or  lye  eventually  passes  into  the  ground  and  affords 
some  plant-food.  Trees  are  ordinarily  washed  with  soap  suds  or 
with  a  lye  solution.  The  material  is  usually  applied  with  an 
old  broom  or  a  stiff  brush.  The  scrubbing  of  the  tree  is  perhaps 
nearly  or  quite  as  beneficial  as  the  application  of  the  wash  itself. 

It  is  customary  to  wash  trees  late  in  spring  or  early  in  summer, 
and  again  in  the  fall,  with  the  idea  that  such  washing  destroys 
the  eggs  and  the  young  of  borers.  It  no  doubt  will  destroy 
borers  if  they  are  just  getting  a  start,  but  it  will  not  keep  away 
the  insects  that  lay  the  eggs,  and  will  not  destroy  the  borers  that 
have  found  their  way  beneath  the  bark.  It  is  perhaps  quite  as 
well  to  wash  the  trees  very  early  in  the  spring,  when  they  are 
starting  into  growth. 

It  is  an  old  practice  to  wash  trees  with  strong  lye  when  they 
are  affected  with  the  oyster-shell  bark  louse.  The  modern 
method  of  treating  these  pests,  however,  is  to  spray  with  some 
kerosene  or  oil  compound  when  the  young  growth  is  starting, 
for  at  that  time  the  young  insects  are  migrating  to  the  new  wood 
and  they  are  very  easily  destroyed  (p.  204). 

The  whitewashing  of  the  trunks  of  trees  tends  also  to  relieve 
them  of  insects  and  fungi ;  and  it  is  probable  that  in  hot  and  dry 
regions  the  white  covering  affords  protection  from  climate. 

Gathering  and  keeping  fruit  (see  p.  158). 

Nearly  all  fruits  should  be  gathered  as  soon  as  they  will  read- 
ily part  from  the  stems  on  which  they  are  borne.  With  many 
perishable  fruits  the  proper  time  for  gathering  will  be  deter- 


ALMOND  415 

mined  largely  by  the  distance  they  are  to  be  shipped.  With  the 
exception  of  winter  varieties  of  apples  and  pears  and  a  few  kinds 
of  grapes,  it  is  best  to  dispose  of  fruit  soon  after  it  is  gathered, 
unless  it  is  kept  for  family  use. 

If  for  winter  use,  the  fruit  should  at  once  be  placed  in  the 
cellar  or  fruit  house  in  which  it  is  to  be  stored,  and  there  kept  as 
near  the  freezing  point  as  possible.  There  will  be  less  danger  of 
shrivehng  if  the  fruit  is  placed  at  once  in  closed  barrels  or 
other  tight  packages,  but  if  proper  ventilation  is  provided,  it 
may  be  kept  in  bins  with  httle  loss.  Even  though  no  ice  is 
used,  it  will  be  possible  to  maintain  a  fairly  low  temperature 
by  opening  the  windows  at  night  when  the  outside  atmosphere 
is  colder  than  that  inside  the  building,  and  closing  them  during 
the  day  as  the  outer  air  becomes  warmer. 

Fruit  should  be  handled  with  great  care  at  all  times,  for  if 
the  cells  become  broken  by  rough  handling,  the  keeping  quali- 
ties will  be  greatly  injured.  The  illustrations  (Figs.  187-189) 
show  three  types  of  fruit  storage  houses. 

Apples  and  winter  pears  may  be  packed  in  sand  or  leaves  in 
the  cellar  (in  boxes)  and  thereby  be  kept  from  shriveling. 

Almond.  —  The  almond  tree  is  seldom  seen  in  the  eastern  states, 
but  now  and  then  one  will  be  found  in  a  yard  and  not  bearing.  The 
failure  to  bear  may  be  due  to  frost  injury  or  lack  of  pollination. 

The  almond  is  about  as  hardy  as  the  peach,  but  it  blooms  so  early 
in  the  spring  that  it  is  little  grown  east  of  the  Pacific  slope.  It  is  an 
interesting  ornamental  tree,  and  its  early  bloom  is  a  merit  when  the 
fruit  is  not  desired.  The  almonds  commonly  sold  by  nurserymen  in 
the  east  are  hard-shell  varieties,  and  the  nuts  are  not  good  enough  for 
commerce.  The  almond  fruit  is  a  drupe,  like  the  peach,  but  the  flesh 
is  thin  and  hard  and  the  pit  is  the  "almond"  of  commerce.  Culture 
as  for  peach. 

The  "flowering  almonds"  are  bushes  of  different  species  from  the 
fruit-bearing  tree  (p.  299).  They  are  usually  grafted  on  plum,  and 
the  stock  is  likely  to  throw  up  suckers  and  cause  trouble. 


416  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

Apples  thrive  over  a  wider  range  of  territory  and  under  more  varied 
conditions  than  any  other  tree  fruit.  This  means  that  they  are  easy 
to  grow.  In  fact  they  are  so  easy  to  grow  that  they  are  usually  neg- 
lected. 

Apples  do  best  on  a  strong,  sandy  loam  soil,  or  a  light  clay  loam. 
While  a  soil  very  rich  in  organic  matter  is  not  desirable,  good  results 
cannot  be  secured  unless  it  contains  a  fair  amount  of  vegetable  matter. 
A  clover  sod  is  particularly  desirable  for  this  as  well  as  for  other  fruits. 

For  a  commercial  orchard,  most  varieties  should  be  from  35  to  40 
feet  apart;  but  the  slow-growing  and  long-lived  sorts  may  be  at  40 
feet,  and,  halfway  between  in  both  directions,  some  of  the  short- 
lived, early-bearing  varieties  may  be  placed,  to  be  removed  after  they 
begin  to  crowd.  In  home  grounds  the  trees  may  be  placed  some- 
what closer  than  35  to  40  feet,  especially  if  they  are  planted  on  the 
boundaries,  so  that  the  limbs  may  project  freely  in  one  direction. 

It  is  ordinarily  advisable,  especially  in  the  humid  climates  east  of 
the  Great  Lakes,  to  have  the  body  of  the  tree  3i  to  4|  feet  long. 
The  limbs  should  be  trimmed  up  to  this  point  when  the  tree  is  set. 
From  three  to  five  main  branches  may  be  left  to  form  the  framework 
of  the  top.  These  should  be  shortened  back  one-fourth  or  one-half 
when  the  tree  is  set.  (Figs.  142-145)  Subsequent  pruning  should  keep 
the  top  of  the  tree  open  and  maintain  it  in  more  or  less  symmetrical 
form.  West  of  the  Great  Lakes,  particularly  on  the  plains  and  in  the 
semi-arid  regions,  the  top  may  be  started  much  nearer  the  ground. 

In  orchard  conditions,  the  trees  should  be  kept  in  clean  culture, 
especially  for  the  first  few  years;  but  this  is  not  always  possible  in  home 
yards.  In  lieu  of  tillage,  the  sward  may  be  mulched  each  fall  with 
stable  manure,  and  commercial  fertilizer  may  be  applied  each  fall  or 
spring.  If  fruit  is  wanted  rather  than  foliage  and  shade,  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  make  ground  too  rich,  but  to  keep  it  in  such  condition 
that  the  tree  is  making  a  fairly  vigorous  growth,  with  good  strong  foli- 
age, but  is  not  overgrowing.  An  apple  tree  in  full  bearing  is  usually 
in  good  condition  if  the  twigs  grow  10  to  18  inches  each  season. 

Apple  trees  should  begin  to  bear  when  three  to  five  years  planted, 
and  at  ten  years  should  be  bearing  good  crops.  With  good  treatment, 
they  should  continue  to  bear  for  thirty  or  more  years  in  the  northeast- 
ern states. 


APPLE  417 

Insects  and  diseases  of  the  apple  (see  p.  198). 

Among  the  insects  most  commonly  found  on  the  apple  tree  are  the 
codlin-moth,  canker-worm,  and  tent-caterpillar.  The  codlin-moth 
lays  its  egg  on  the  fruit  soon  after  the  blossoms  fall,  and  the  larvae, 
on  hatching,  eat  their  way  inside.  A  thorough  spraying  of  the  trees 
with  arsenites  (p.  201)  within  a  week  after  the  blossoms  fall  will  do  much 
toward  destroying  them;  and  a  second  application,  in  about  three 
weeks,  will  be  essential.  The  canker-worm  (Fig.  217)  and  tent-cater- 
pillars feed  on  the  leaves, and  can  also  be  destroyed  by  means  of  arsen- 
ites. To  be  effective  against  the  former,  however,  the  applications 
must  be  made  soon  after  they  hatch,  and  very  thoroughly. 

A  close  watch  should  be  kept  for  borers.  Whenever  the  bark 
appears  to  be  dead  or  sunken  in  patches,  remove  it  and  search  for  the 
cause.  A  borer  will  usually  be  found  underneath  the  bark.  About 
the  base  of  the  tree  the  most  serious  injury  occurs  from  borers,  since 
the  insect  which  enters  there  bores  into  the  hard  wood.  His  presence 
can  be  determined  by  the  chips  that  are  cast  from  his  burrows.  If 
the  trees  are  well  cultivated  and  in  a  thrifty  growing  condition,  the 
injury  will  be  greatly  reduced.  It  will  be  well  to  wash  the  trunks 
and  larger  branches  with  soft  soap,  thinned  with  water  so  that  it  can 
be  applied  with  a  brush  or  broom,  during  the  spring.  The  addition 
of  an  ounce  of  Paris  green  in  each  five  gallons  of  the  wash  will  be  of 
value.    The  only  real  remedy,  however,  is  to  dig  the  borers  out. 

The  most  troublesome  disease  of  the  apple  is  the  apple-scab,  which 
disfigures  the  fruit  as  well  as  lessens  its  size.  It  also  often  does  much 
harm  to  the  foliage,  and  thus  checks  the  growth  of  the  trees  (Fig.  214). 
The  Baldwin,  Fameuse,  Northern  Spy  and  Red  Canada  are  particularly 
subject  to  this  disease,  and  it  is  much  more  troublesome  in  moist 
seasons  than  when  the  weather  is  dry.  The  use  of  fungicides  will  do 
much  to  lessen  the  injury  from  this  disease. 

Varieties  of  apple. 

The  selection  of  varieties  of  apples  for  home  use  is,  to  a  large  extent, 

a  personal  matter;  and  no  one  may  say  what  to  plant.     A  variety 

that  is  successfully  grown   in  one  section  may  prove  disappointing 

in  another.     One   should  study  the  locahty  in  which  he   wishes  to 

2b 


418 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


plant  and  choose  those  varieties  which  are  the  most  successfully 
grown  there,  —  choosing  from  amongst  the  successful  kinds  those 
which  he  likes  best  and  which  seem  best  to  meet  the  purposes  for 
which  he  is  to  grow  them. 

For  the  northern  and  eastern  states,  the  following  varieties  will 
generally  be  found  valuable :  — 

Early.  —  Yellow  Transparent,  Early  Harvest,  Early  Strawberry, 
Primate,  Dyer,  Summer  Rose,  Early  Joe,  R.ed  Astrachan,  Golden 
Sweet,  Oldenburg,*  Summer  Pearmain,  Williams  (Favorite),  Chenango, 
Bough  (Sweet),  Summer  Queen,  Gravenstein,*  Jefferis,  Porter,  Maiden 
Bhish. 

Autumn.  —  Bailey  (Sweet),  Fameuse,*  Jersey  Sweet,  Fall  Pippin, 
Wealthy,*  Mother,  Twenty  Ounce,  Magnate. 


271.   The  Jonathan. 

Winter.  —  Jonathan*  (Fig.  271),  Hubbardston,*  Grimes,*  Tomp- 
kins King,*  Wagener*  (Fig.  272),  Baldwin,*  Yellow  Bellflower, 
Tolman  (Sweet),  Northern  Spy,*  Red  Canada,*  Roxbury,  Mcintosh,* 
Yellow  Newtown  (Plate  XXI),  Golden  Russet,  Belmont,  Melon,  Lady, 
Rambo,  York  Imperial,  Pomme  Gris,  Esopus  (Spitzenburgh),  Swaar, 
Peck  (Pleasant),  Rhode  Island  Greening,  Sutton,  Delicious,  Stayman 
Winesap,  Westfield  (Seek-no-further). 


*  The  varieties  marked  with  an  asterisk  (*)  are  particularly  valuable  for 
market  purposes  as  well  as  for  home  use;  the  others  are  chiefly  desirable  for 
home  use. 


APPLE 


419 


For  the  South  and  Southwest  the  varieties  named  in  the  following 
list  are  of  value :  — 

Early.  —  Red  June,  Yellow  Transparent,  Red  Astrachan,  Summer 
Queen,  Benoni,  Oldenburg,  Gravenstein,  Maiden  Blush,  Earlyripe,* 
Williams,*  Early  Cooper,*  Horse. 


272.   The  Wagener. 

Autumn.  —  Haas,  Late  Strawberry,  Oconee,  Rambo,  Peck  (Peck 
Pleasant),  Carter  Blue,  Bonum,*  Smokehouse,*  Hoover. 


273.   Pewaukee  Apple. 

Winter.  —  Shockley,  Rome  Beauty,*  Smith  Cider,  Grimes,  Bucking- 
ham, Jonathan,*  Winesap,  Kinnard,  York  Imperial,  Gilpin  (Romanite), 

*  Ibid. 


420  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

Ralls  (Genet),  Limbertwig,  Royal  Lumbertwig,  Stayman  Winesap,* 
Milam,  Virginia  Beauty,*  Terry,*  Ingram.* 

In  the  Northwest  only  such  varieties  as  are  extremely  hardy  will  be 
satisfactory,  and  among  those  likely  to  succeed  we  may  mention:  — 

Early.  —  Yellow  Transparent,  Tetofski,  Oldenburg.* 

Autumn.  —  Fameuse,  Longfield,  Wealthy,  McMahan,*  Mcintosh,* 
Shiawassee. 

Winter.  —  Wolf  Reiver,*  Hibernal,  Northwestern  (Greening),  Pe- 
waukee  (Fig.  273),  Switzer,  Golden  Russet,  Patten  (Greening).* 

Apricot.  —  This  fruit  is  not  often  seen  in  home  gardens  in  the  East, 
although  it  deserves  to  be  better  known.  When  grown  at  all,  it  is 
likely  to  be  trained  on  walls,  after  the  English  custom. 

In  the  latitude  of  New  York,  the  apricot  has  proved  as  hardy  as  the 
peach.  Given  the  right  conditions  as  to  soil  and  exposure,  it  will 
yield  abundant  crops,  ripening  its  fruits  about  three  weeks  in  advance 
of  early  peaches. 

The  apricot  usually  thrives  best  on  strong  land;  but  otherwise  the 
treatment  given  the  peach  suits  it  very  well.  The  soil  should  be  rather 
dry;  especially  should  the  subsoil  be  such  that  no  water  may  stand 
around  the  roots.  The  exposure  should  be  to  the  north  or  west  to 
retard  the  blooming  period,  as  the  one  great  drawback  to  the  success- 
ful fruiting  is  the  early  blooming  and  subsequent  freezing  of  the  flowers 
or  the  small  fruits. 

The  two  serious  difficulties  in  the  growing  of  apricots  are  the  ravages 
of  the  curculio,  and  the  danger  to  the  flowers  from  the  spring  frosts.  It 
is  usually  almost  impossible  to  secure  fruits  from  one  or  two  isolated 
apricot  trees,  because  the  curculios  will  take  them  all.  It  is  possible, 
also,  that  some  of  the  varieties  need  cross-pollination. 

Among  the  best  kinds  of  apricots  are  Montgamet,  Jackson,  Royal, 
St.  Ambroise,  Early  Golden,  Harris,  Roman  (Fig.  274)  and  Moorpark. 
In  the  East,  apricots  are  commonly  worked  on  plums,  but  they  also 
thrive  on  the  peach. 

The  introduction  of  the  Russian  varieties,  a  few  years  ago,  added  to 

*  The  varieties  marked  with  an  asterisk  (*)  are  particularly  valuable  for 
market  purposes  as  well  as  for  home  use;  the  others  are  chiefly  desirable  for 
home  use. 


APRICOT  —  BLACKBERRY 


421 


the  list  several  desirable  kinds  that  have  proved  hardier  and  a  little 
later  in  blooming  than  the  old  kinds.  The  fruits  of  the  Russian  va- 
rieties, while  not  as  large  as  the  other  varieties,  fully  equal  many  of 
them  in  flavor,  and  they  are  very  productive.  They  bear  more  pro- 
fusely and  with  less  care  than  the  old-fashioned  and  larger  kinds. 


274.   Roman  Apricot. 


Blackberry.  —  In  a  general  way,  the  planting  and  care  of  a  black- 
berry plantation  is  the  same  as  required  by  raspberries.  From  the 
fact  that  they  ripen  later  in  the  season,  when  droughts  are  most  com- 
mon, even  greater  attention  should  be  given  to  placing  them  in  land  that 
is  retentive  of  moisture,  and  to  providing  an  efficient  mulch,  which 
can  generally  best  be  secured  with  a  cultivator.  The  smaller-growing 
kinds  (as  Early  Harvest  and  Wilson)  may  be  planted  4x7  ft.,  the  rank- 
growing  varieties  (as  Snyder)  6  x  8  ft.  Thorough  cultivation  through- 
out the  season  will  help  in  a  material  degree  to  hold  the  moisture  neces- 
sary to  perfect  a  good  crop.  The  soil  should  be  cultivated  very  shallow, 
however,  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  roots,  as  the  breaking  of  the  roots 
starts  a  large  number  of  suckers  that  have  to  be  cut  out  and  destroyed. 


422  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

While  hill  culture  (as  recommended  above)  is  desirable  for  the  garden, 
commercial  growers  generally  use  continuous  rows. 

Blackberries,  like  dewberries  and  raspberries,  bear  but  one  crop  on 
the  cane.  That  is,  canes  which  spring  up  this  year  bear  next  year. 
From  3  to  6  canes  are  sufficient  to  be  left  in  each  hill.  The  superfluous 
ones  are  thinned  out  soon  after  they  start  from  the  ground.  The  old 
canes  should  be  cut  out  soon  after  fruiting,  and  burned.  The  new 
shoots  should  be  pinched  back  at  the  height  of  2  or  3  ft.  if  the  plants  are 
to  support  themselves.  If  to  be  fastened  to  wires,  they  may  be  allowed 
to  grow  throughout  the  season  and  be  cut  back  when  tied  to  the  wires 
in  winter  or  early  spring. 

Blackberry  plants  are  sometimes  laid,  down  in  cold  climates,  —  the 
tops  being  bent  over  and  held  to  the  ground  by  earth  or  sods  thrown  on 
their  tips  (Fig.  155). 

The  most  troublesome  disease  of  the  blackberry  is  orange  rust 
(conspicuous  on  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves),  which  often  proves  very 
destructive,  particularly  to  Kittatinny  and  a  few  other  sorts.  There  is 
no  remedy,  and  on  the  first  appearance  of  the  disease  the  infected  plants 
should  be  dug  up  and  burned  (p.  212). 

Varieties  of  blackberries. 

Many  of  the  better  varieties  of  blackberries  are  lacking  in  hardiness, 
and  cannot  be  grown  except  in  the  more  favorable  localities.  Snyder 
and  Taylor  are  most  generally  successful,  although  Wilson  and  Early 
Harvest  are  often  grown  on  a  large  scale  for  market,  and  do  well  with 
winter  protection.  Eldorado  is  much  like  Snyder,  that  seems  hardy 
and  productive.  Erie,  Minnewaski,  Kittatinny,  and  Early  King  are 
in  many  sections  large  and  valuable  sorts. 

Cherry.  —  Of  cherries  there  are  two  common  types,  the  sweet 
cherries  and  the  sour  cherries.  The  sweet  cherries  are  larger  and  taller- 
growing  trees.  They  comprise  the  varieties  known  as  the  hearts, 
bigarreaus,  and  dukes.  The  sour  cherries  (Fig.  275)  include  the  various 
kinds  of  morellos  and  pie  cherries,  and  these  usually  ripen  after  the 
sweet  cherries. 

The  sour  cherries  make  low,  round-headed  trees.  The  fruits  are 
extensively  used  for  canning.     Sour  cherries  thrive  well  on  clay  loams. 


CHERRY 


423 


275.   Sour  or  pie  cherries. 


The  sour  cherry  should  be  planted  18  by  18  ft.  apart,  in  well-prepared, 
under-drained  soil.  The  trees  may  be  slightly  trimmed  back  each  year, 
keeping  the  head  low  and  bushy. 

The  sweet  cherries  have  proved  disappointing  in  many  instances 
from  the  rotting  of  the  fruit.  This  may  never  be  entirely  avoided,  but 
good  cultivation,  soil 
not  too  rich  in  nitro- 
gen,  attention  to 
spraying,  and  picking 
the  fruit  when  dry, 
will  lessen  the  loss 
very  much.  In  years 
of  severe  rotting  the 
fruit  should  be  picked 
before  it  becomes  fully 
ripe,  placed  in  a  cool, 
airy  room  and  allowed 
to  color.  It  will  be 
nearly  as  well  flavored  as  if  left  on  the  tree ;  and,  as  the  fungus  usually 
attacks  only  the  ripe  fruit,  a  considerable  part  of  the  crop  may  be 
saved.  Set  the  trees  25  or  30  ft.  apart.  Only  very  well-drained  land 
should  be  devoted  to  sweet  cherries,  preferably  one  of  a  somewhat 
gravelly  nature. 

Leaf-blight  is  readily  controlled  by  timely  spraying  with  bordeaux 
mixture  (see  bottom  p.  211).  The  curculio  or  fruit  worm  may  be  con- 
trolled by  jarring,  as  for  plums,  or  by  spraying  (p.  202).  The  jarring 
process  is  seldom  employed  with  cherries  for  the  curculio,  inasmuch 
as  the  poison  spray  seems,  for  some  reason,  to  be  particularly  effec- 
tive on  these  fruits. 

Varieties  oj  cherry. 

Of  the  sour  varieties,  ]\Iay  Duke  (Fig.  36),  Richmond,  Dyehouse, 
Montmorency,  Ostheim,  Hortense  (Fig.  34),  Late  Kentish,  Suda,  and 
:Morello  (English  Morello)  (Fig.  35)  are  the  most  valuable.  The  fol- 
lowing sweet  varieties  are  of  value  where  they  succeed:  Rockport, 
(Yellow)  Spanish,  Elton,  (Governor)  Wood,  Coe,  Windsor,  (Black) 
Tartarian,  and  Downer, 


424  31  AN  UAL    OF   GARDENING 

Cranberry.  —  The  growing  of  cranberries  in  artificial  bogs  is  an 
American  industry.  The  common  large  cranberry  of  markets  is  also 
a  peculiarly  American  fruit,  since  it  is  unknown  in  other  countries  ex- 
cept as  the  fruit  is  shipped  there. 

Cranberries  are  grown  in  bogs,  which  may  be  flooded.  The  whole 
area  is  kept  under  water  during  the  winter  time,  largely  to  prevent  the 
plants  from  winter  injury  by  the  heaving  and  freezing  and  thawing  of 
the  bogs.  Flooding  is  also  employed  at  intervals  for  the  purpose  of 
drowning  out  insects,  mitigating  drought,  and  protecting  against  frost 
and  fires.  The  ordinary  practice  is  to  choose  a  bog  which  has  a  creek 
running  through  it,  or  through  which  some  creek  or  ditch  may  be  di- 
verted. At  the  lower  side  of  the  bog  flood-gates  are  provided,  so  that 
when  the  gates  are  shut,  the  water  backs  up  and  floods  the  area.  It  is 
best  that  the  bog  be  comparatively  flat,  so  that  the  water  will  be  of 
approximately  equal  depth  over  the  whole  area.  At  the  shallowest 
places  the  water  should  stand  about  a  foot  above  the  plants.  The  water 
is  usually  let  on  the  bog  early  in  December  and  kept  on  until  April  or 
early  May.  No  flooding  is  done  during  the  rest  of  the  year  unless  there 
is  some  particular  occasion  therefor. 

AH  the  wild  and  turfy  growth  should  be  taken  off  the  bog  before  the 
vines  are  set.  This  is  done  either  by  digging  it  off  and  removing  it 
bodily,  or  by  drowning  it  out  by  means  of  a  year's  flooding.  The  former 
method  is  generally  considered  to  be  the  better.  After  the  turfy  growth 
is  removed,  the  bog  is  smoothed,  and  covered  2  or  3  in.  deep  with  clean 
sand.  The  vines  are  now  set,  the  lower  ends  of  them  being  shoved 
through  the  sand  into  the  richer  earth.  In  order  to  prevent  a  too 
rapid  and  tangled  growth  of  vine,  it  is  customary  to  resand  the  bog 
every  three  or  four  years  to  a  depth  of  one-fourth  or  one-half  inch. 
When  sanding  is  not  practicable,  the  vines  may  be  mown  off  when  they 
become  too  luxuriant. 

The  plants  for  setting  are  merely  cuttings  or  branches  of  the  vines. 
These  cuttings  may  be  5  to  10  inches  long.  They  are  inserted  into  the 
ground  in  a  hole  made  by  a  crowbar  or  stick.  They  are  usually  planted 
at  distances  of  12  to  18  inches  each  way,  and  the  vines  are  allowed 
to  cover  the  entire  ground  as  with  a  mat.  In  three  years  a  good  crop 
should  be  secured,  if  the  weeds  and  wild  growth  are  kept  down.  A  crop 
ranges  between  50  to  100  barrels  per  acre. 


CURRANT  42u 

Currant.  —  As  the  currant  is  one  of  the  hardiest  and  most  productive 
of  fruits  in  the  North,  so  is  it  often  neglected,  the  patch  allowed  to 
become  foul  with  grass,  never  thinned  or  trimmed,  the  worms  eating 
the  leaves  until,  in  the  course  of  time,  the  plants  weaken  and  die. 
Along  the  fence  is  no  place  to  plant  currants,  or,  indeed,  any  other  fruit; 
plant  out  in  the  open,  at  least  5  feet  from  anything  that  will  interfere 
with  cultivation. 

No  fruit  crop  will  respond  more  readily  to  good  care  than  the  currant. 
Clean  cultivation  and  a  liberal  use  of  manure  or  fertilizers  will  certainly 
be  followed  by  well-paying  crops.  One-  or  two-year-old  plants  may  be 
set,  4  by  6  feet.  Trim  the  bush  by  cutting  off  most  of  the  suckers  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  currant  should  have  cool  moist  soil. 
If  the  season  is  dry,  a  mulch  of  straw  or  leaves  will  assist  the  plants  to 
establish  themselves. 

Currants  are  easily  propagated  by  mature  cuttings  of  the  new  or 
previous  year's  canes. 

The  red  and  white  currants  bear  mostly  on  two-year-old  or  older 
wood.  A  succession  of  young  shoots  should  be  allowed  to  grow  to 
take  the  place  of  the  old  bearing  w^ood.  Cut  out  the  canes  as  they  grow 
older.  The  partial  shade  afforded  by  a  young  orchard  suits  the  currant 
well,  and  if  the  ground  is  in  good  condition,  no  bad  results  will  follow 
to  the  orchard,  provided  the  currants  are  removed  before  the  trees  need 
the  entire  feeding  space. 

A  currant  patch  should  continue  in  good  bearing  for  10  to  20  years, 
if  properly  handled.  One  very  important  point  is  to  keep  the  old,  weak 
canes  cut  out,  and  a  succession  of  two  to  four  new  ones  coming  from  the 
root  each  year. 

To  combat  the  currant  worm,  spray  thoroughly  with  Paris  green  to 
kill  the  first  brood,  just  as  soon  as  holes  can  be  seen  in  the  lower  leaves 
—  usually  before  the  plants  are  in  bloom.  For  the  second  brood,  if  it 
appear,  spray  with  white  hellebore  (p.  203).  For  borers,  cut  out  and 
burn  the  affected  canes. 

Varieties  of  currants. 

In  most  sections  the  Red  Dutch  will  be  found  to  be  the  most  satis- 
factory variety,  as  the  plants  are  much  less  injured  by  borers  than  are 
Cherry  (Plate  XXIII),  Fay,  and  Versailles,  which  are  larger  and  better 


426 


MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 


varieties,  and  are  to  be  preferred  in  sections  where  the  borers  are  not 
troublesome.  Victoria  is  a  valuable  market  sort  where  borers  are 
numerous,  as  it  is  little  injured  by  them.  The  same  is  also  true  of 
(Prince)  Albert,  which  is  little  attacked  by  currant  worms  and  is 
particularly  valuable  as  a  late  sort.  White  Dutch  and  White  Grape 
are  valuable  light-colored  varieties,  and  (Black)  Naples  as  a  variety 
for  jelly.  London  (London  Market)  is  also  proving  to  be  satisfactory 
in  some  sections. 

Dewberry.  —  The  dewberry  may  be  called  an  early  trailing  black- 
berry. The  culture  is  very  simple.  Support 
should  be  given  to  the  canes,  as  they  are  very 
slender  and  rank  growers.  A  wire  trellis  or  large- 
meshed  fence-wire  answers  admirably;  or  (and  this 
is  the  better  general  method)  they  may  be  tied  to 
stakes.  The  fruits  are  large  and  showy,  which, 
combined  with  their  earliness,  makes  them  desir- 
able ;  but  they  are  usually  deficient  in  flavor.  The 
Lucretia  (Fig.  276)  is  the  leading  variety. 

Lay  the  canes  on  the  ground  in  winter.  In  the 
spring  tie  all  the  canes  from  each  plant  to  a  stake. 
After  fruiting,  cut  the  old  canes  and  burn  them  (as 
for  blackberries).  In  the  meantime,  the  young 
canes  (for  next  year's  fruiting)  are  growing.  These 
may  be  tied  up  as  they  grow,  to  be  out  of  the  way 
of  the  cultivator.  Dewberries  are  one  to  two 
weeks  earlier  than  blackberries. 


276 


Lucretia 
berry. 


dew- 


Fig.  —  The  fig  is  little  grown  in  the  East  except  as  a  curiosity,  but 
on  the  Pacific  coast  it  has  gained  considerable  prominence  as  an  orchard 
fruit.  Figs  will  stand  considerable  frost,  and  seedling  or  inferior 
varieties  grow  out-of-doors  without  protection  as  far  north  as  Virginia. 
Many  of  the  varieties  fruit  on  young  sprouts,  and,  inasmuch  as  the 
roots  will  stand  considerable  cold,  these  varieties  will  often  give  a  few 
figs  in  the  northern  states.  Figs  have  been  fruited  in  the  open  ground 
in  Michigan.  In  regions  having  ten  degrees  of  frost,  the  fig  should  be 
laid  down  in  winter.  For  this  purpose  the  plants  are  pruned  to  branch 
from  the  ground,  and  the  soft  tops  are  bent  to  the  surface  and  covered 


FIG  —  GOOSEBERRY 


42; 


with  earth.  In  commercial  cultivation,  fig  trees  grow  large,  and  they 
stand  18  to  25  feet  apart;  but  in  gardens  where  they  are  to  be  bent  over, 
they  are  to  be  kept  as  bushes. 

Adriatic  is  the  most  commonly  grown  white  fig.  Among  the  other 
varieties  are  California  Black  or  Mission  Fig,  Brown  Ischia,  Brown 
Turkey,  White  Ischia,  and  Celeste  (Celestial).  * 


Gooseberry.  —  The  gooseberry  differs  little  from  the  currant  in  its 
requirements  as  to  soil,  pruning,  and  general  care.  The  plants  should 
be  set  3  to  4  feet  apart ; 
rows  5  to  7  feet  apart. 
Select  a  rich,  rather 
moist  soil.  The  tops 
need  no  winter  protec- 
tion. If  mildew  and 
worms  are  to  be  kept 
in  check,  spraying  must 
be  begun  with  the  very 
first  sign  of  trouble  and 
be  thoroughly  done 
(pp.  203,  209). 

The  propagation  of 
the  gooseberry  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  currant, 
although  the  practice 
of  earthing  up  a  whole 
plant,  causing  every 
branch  thus  covered  to 
throw  out  roots,  is  prac- 
ticed with  the  European  varieties.  The  rooted  branches  are  cut  off 
the  following  spring  and  planted  in  nursery  rows  or  sometimes  directly 
in  the  field.  In  order  to  succeed  with  this  method,  the  plant  should 
have  been  cut  back  to  the  ground  so  that  all  the  shoots  are  yearling. 

Since  the  advent  of  the  practice  of  spraying  with  fungicides  to  pre- 
vent mildew,  the  culture  of  the  gooseberry  has  increased.  There  is 
now  no  reason  why,  with  a  little  care,  good  crops  of  many  of  the  best 
English  varieties  may  not  be  grown. 


277.   One  of  the  English-American  gooseberries. 


428  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

A  large  part  of  the  gooseberry  crop  is  picked  green  for  culinary  pur- 
poses. Several  of  the  English  varieties  and  their  derivatives  have 
proved  of  value,  having  larger  fruits  than  the  natives  (Fig.  277). 

Varieties  of  gooseberries. 

For  ordinary  use  the  Downing  can  generally  be  recommended.  It  is 
hardy,  productive,  of  fair  size,  and  greenish  white  in  color.  Houghton 
is  even  more  hardy  and  productive,  but  the  fruit  is  rather  small  and 
of  a  dark  red  color.  Among  the  varieties  of  European  origin  that  can 
be  successfully  grown,  if  the  mildew  can  be  prevented,  are  Industry, 
Triumph,  Keepsake,  Lancashire  Lad,  and  Golden  Prohfic.  Among 
other  varieties  that  are  promising  are  Champion,  Columbus,  Chau- 
tauqua, and  Josselyn  (Red  Jacket). 

Grape.  —  One  of  the  surest  of  fruit  crops  is  the  grape,  a  crop  each 
year  being  reasonably  certain  after  the  third  year  from  the  time  of 
setting  the  vines;  and  the  good  amateur  kinds  are  numerous. 

The  grape  does  well  on  any  soil  that  is  under  good  cultivation  and 
well  drained.  A  soil  with  considerable  clay  is  better  under  these  cir- 
cumstances than  a  light,  sandy  loam.  The  exposure  should  be  to  the 
sun ;  and  the  place  should  admit  of  cultivation  on  all  sides. 

For  planting,  1-  or  2-year-old  vines  should  be  used,  being  set 
either  in  the  fall  or  early  spring.  At  planting,  the  vine  is  cut  back  to 
3  or  4  eyes,  and  the  roots  are  well  shortened  in.  The  hole  in  which  the 
plant  is  to  be  set  should  be  large  enough  to  allow  a  full  spreading  of  the 
roots.  If  the  season  should  be  dry,  a  mulch  of  coarse  litter  may  be 
spread  around  the  vine.  If  all  the  buds  start,  the  strongest  one  or 
two  may  be  allowed  to  grow.  The  canes  arising  from  these  buds  should 
be  staked  and  allowed  to  grow  through  the  season ;  or  in  large  planta- 
tions the  first-year  canes  may  be  allowed  to  lie  on  the  ground. 

The  second  year  one  cane  should  be  cut  back  to  the  same  number  of 
eyes  as  the  first  year.  After  growth  begins  in  the  spring,  two  of  the 
strongest  buds  should  be  allowed  to  remain.  These  two  canes  now 
arising  may  be  grown  to  a  single  stake  through  the  second  summer,  or 
they  may  be  spread  horizontally  on  a  trellis.  These  are  the  canes 
that  form  the  permanent  arms  or  parts  of  the  vine.  From  them  start 
the  upright  shoots  which,  in  succeeding  years,  are  to  bear  the  fruits. 


GRAPE  429 

In  order  to  understand  the  pruning  of  grapes,  the  operator  must 
fully  grasp  this  principle :  Fruit  is  borne  on  wood  of  the  present  season, 
which  arises  from  wood  of  the  previous  season.  To  illustrate :  A  growing 
shoot,  or  cane,  of  1909  makes  buds.  In  1910  a  shoot  arises  from  each 
bud;  and  near  the  base  of  these  shoots  the  grapes  are  borne  (1  to  4 
clusters  on  each).  While  every  bud  on  the  1909  shoot  may  produce 
shoots  or  canes  in  1910,  only  the  strongest  of  these  new  canes  will 
bear  fruit.  The  skilled  grape-grower  can  tell  by  the  looks  of  his  cane 
(as  he  prunes  it  in  winter)  which  buds  will  give  rise  to  the  grape-pro- 
ducing wood  the  following  season.  The  larger  and  stronger  buds 
usually  give  best  results;  but  if  the  cane  itself  is  very  big  and  stout, 
or  if  it  is  very  weak  and  slender,  he  does  not  expect  good  results  from 
any  of  its  buds.  A  hard,  well-ripened  cane  the  diameter  of  a  man's 
little  finger  is  the  ideal  size. 

Another  principle  to  be  mastered  is  this :  A  vine  should  bear  only  a 
limited  number  of  clusters,  —  say  from  30  to  80.  A  shoot  bears  clusters 
near  its  base;  beyond  these  clusters  the  shoot  grows  on  into  a  long, 
leafy  cane.  An  average  of  two  clusters  may  be  reckoned  to  a  shoot. 
If  the  vine  is  strong  enough  to  bear  60  clusters,  30  good  buds 
must  be  left  at  the  pruning  (which  is  done  from  December  to  late 
February) . 

The  essential  operation  of  pruning  a  grape  vine,  therefore,  is  each 
year  to  cut  back  a  limited  number  of  good  canes  to  a  few  buds,  and  to 
cut  off  entirely  all  the  remaining  canes  or  w^ood  of  the  previous  season's 
growth.  If  a  cane  is  cut  back  to  2  or  3  buds,  the  stub-like  part  which 
remains  is  called  a  spur.  Present  systems,  however,  cut  each  cane 
back  to  8  or  10  buds  (on  strong  varieties),  and  3  or  4  canes  are  left,  -^ 
all  radiating  from  near  the  head  or  trunk  of  the  vine.  The  top  of  the 
vine  does  not  grow  bigger  from  year  to  year,  after  it  has  once  covered 
the  trellis,  but  is  cut  back  to  practically  the  same  number  of  buds  each 
year.  Since  these  buds  are  on  new  wood,  it  is  evident  that  they  are 
each  year  farther  and  farther  removed  from  the  head  of  the  vine.  In 
order  to  obviate  this  difficulty,  new  canes  are  taken  out  each  year  or 
two  from  near  the  head  of  the  vine,  and  the  2-year-  or  3-year-old  wood 
is  cut  away. 

The  training  of  grapes  is  a  different  matter.  A  dozen  different 
systems  of  training  may  be  practiced  on  the  same  trellis  and  from  the 


430 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


278.   Bag  ready  to 
be  applied. 


same  style  of  pruning,  —  for  training  is  only  the  disposition  or  ar 
rangement  of  the  parts. 

On  arbors,  it  is  best  to  carry  one  permanent  arm  or  trunk  from  each 
root  over  the  framework  to  the  peak.     Each  year  the  canes  are  cut 
back  to  short  spurs  (of  2  or  3  buds)  along  the  sides 
of  this  trunk. 

Grapes  are  set  from  6  to  8  feet  apart  in  rows 
which  are  8  to  10  feet  apart.  A  trellis  made  of  2  or 
3  wires  is  the  best  support.  £'lat  trellises  catch  too 
much  wind  and  blow  down.  Avoid  stimulating 
manures.  In  very  cold  climates,  the  vines  may  be 
taken  off  the  trellis  in  early  winter  and  laid  on  the 
ground  and  lightly  covered  with 
earth.  Along  the  boundaries  of 
home  lots,  where  grapes  are  often 
planted,  little  is  to  be  expected  in  the  way  of  fruit 
because  the  ground  is  not  well  tilled.- 

The  grape  is  subject  to  many  insects  and  diseases, 
some  of  which  are  very  destructive.  The  black-rot 
is  the  most  usual  trouble.     See  p.  209. 

To  produce  bunches  of  high  quality  and  free  from 
rot  and  frost  injury,  grapes  are  some- 
times bagged.  When  the  grapes  are  279.  The  second 
about  half  grown,  the  bunch  is  covered  stageinadjust- 
with  a  grocer's  manila  bag.  The  bags  "'^  ^^''^  ^^S" 
remain  until  the  fruit  is  ripe.  The  grapes  usually  mature 
earlier  in  the  bags.  The  top  of  the  bag  is  spUt,  and 
the  flaps  are  secured  over  the  branch  with  a  pin ;  Figs. 
278,  279,  280  explain  the  operation. 

In   all    the    above  discussion,  the  so-called  native 


280.  The    bag- 
ging complete 


grapes  alone  are  considered.     In  California,  the  Euro- 
pean or  vinifera  types  are  grown,  the  requirements  of 
which  are  radically  different  from  those  of  the  eastern  kinds. 


Varieties  of  grapes. 

Under  nearly  all  conditions,  the  Concord  will  be  a  valuable  black 
variety,  although  Worden,  which  is  a  few  days  earlier,  may  be  pre- 


GRAPE  431 

ferred  by  many.  j\Ioore  (Moore  Early)  has  beeil  our  best  very  early 
black  variety,  bat  is  likely  to  be  superseded  by  CampbeU,  which  is  a 
stronger  vine,  more  productive,  bunches  larger,  fruit  of  better  quality, 
and  of  superior  keeping  qualities,  making  it  valuable  for  shipping  pur- 
poses. Catawba,  Delaware,  and  Brighton  are  among  the  best  red 
varieties,  although  Agawam  and  Salem  are  much  used.  Winchell 
(Green  Mountain)  is  the  best  early  white  variety,  and  in  most  sections 
Niagara,  a  late  white  sort,  does  well.  Diamond  (Moore  Diamond)  is  a 
white  grape  of  better  quality  than  Niagara. 

Grapes  under  glass  (S.  W.  Fletcher). 

The  European  grapes  rarely  thrive  out  of  doors  in  eastern  America. 
Grape  houses  are  necessary,  with  or  without  artificial  heat.  Fruit  for 
home  use  may  be  grown  very  satisfactorily  in  a  cold  grapery  (without 
artificial  heat).  A  simple  lean-to  against  the  south  side  of  a  building 
or  wall  is  cheap  and  serviceable.  When  a  separate  building  is  desired, 
an  even-span  house  running  north  and  south  is  preferable.  There  is 
no  advantage  in  having  a  curved  roof,  except  as  a  matter  of  looks.  A 
compost  of  four  parts  rotted  turf  to  one  of  manure  is  laid  on  a  sloping 
cement  bottom  outside  the  house,  making  a  border  12  feet  wide  and  2 
feet  deep.  The  cement  may  be  replaced  with  rubble  on  well-drained 
soils,  but  it  is  a  poor  makeshift.  Every  three  years  the  upper  6  inches 
of  the  border  should  be  renewed  with  manure.  The  border  inside  the 
house  is  prepared  likewise.  Two-year-old  potted  vines  are  planted 
about  4  feet  apart  in  a  single  row.  Part  of  the  roots  go  through  a 
crevice  in  the  wall  to  the  outer  border  and  part  remain  inside;  or  all 
may  go  outside  if  the  house  is  desired  for  other  purposes.  One  strong 
cane  is  trained  to  a  wire  trellis  hanging  at  least  18  inches  from  the  glass, 
and  is  cut  back  to  3  feet  the  first  year,  6  the  second,  and  9  the  third. 
Do  not  be  in  a  hurry  to  get  a  long  cane.  Pruning  is  on  the  spur  system, 
as  recommended  for  arbors  on  p.  430.  The  vines  are  usually  laid 
on  the  ground  for  winter  and  covered  with  leaves  or  wrapped  with 
cloth. 

As  soon  as  the  buds  swell  in  early  spring,  tie  the  vines  to  the  trelHs 
and  start  out  one  shoot  from  each  spur,  rubbing  off  all  others.  After 
the  berries  begin  to  color,  however,  it  is  better  to  leave  all  further 
growth  to  shade  the  fruit.     Pinch  back  each  of  these  laterals  two 


432  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

joints  beyond  the  second  bunch.  To  keep  down  red  spider  and  thrips, 
the  foliage  should  be  sprayed  with  water  every  bright  morning  except 
during  the  blooming  season.  At  least  one-third  of  the  berries  should 
be  thinned  from  each  bunch;  do  not  be  afraid  of  taking  out  too  many. 
Water  the  inside  border  frequently  all  through  the  summer,  and  the 
outside  occasionally  if  the  season  is  dry.  Mildew  may  appear  in  July. 
The  best  preventives  are  to  syringe  faithfully,  admit  air  freely,  and 
sprinkle  sulfur  on  the  ground. 

Fruit  may  be  kept  fresh  on  the  vines  in  a  warm  (or  artificially 
heated)  grapery  until  late  December ;  in  a  coldhouse  it  must  be  picked 
before  frost.  After  the  fruit  is  off,  ventilate  from  top  and  bottom 
and  withhold  water,  so  as  thoroughly  to  ripen  the  wood.  Along  in 
November  the  canes  are  pruned,  covered  with  straw  or  wrapped  with 
mats  and  laid  down  till  spring.  Black  Hamburg  is  superior  to  all  other 
varieties  for  a  cold  grapery;  Bowood  Muscat,  Muscat  of  Alexandria, 
and  Chasselas  Musque  may  be  added  in  the  warmhouse.  Good  vines 
will  live  and  bear  almost  indefinitely. 

Mulberry,  —  Both  for  fruit  and  ornament  the  mulberry  should  be 
more  generally  planted.  Even  if  the  fruit  is  not  to  the  taste,  the  tree 
is  naturally  open-centered  and  round-headed,  and  is  an  interesting 
subject;  some  of  the  varieties  have  finely  cut  leaves.  The  fruits  are 
in  great  demand  by  the  birds,  and  after  they  begin  to  ripen  the  straw- 
berry beds  and  cherry  trees  are  freer  from  robins  and  other  fruit- 
eating  birds.  For  this  reason  alone  they  are  a  valuable  tree  for  the 
fruit-grower.  Trees  may  be  purchased  cheaper  than  one  can  propa- 
gate them. 

If  planted  in  orchard  form,  place  them  25  to  30  feet  apart. 
About  the  borders  of  a  place  they  can  go  closer.  The  Rus- 
sian varieties  are  often  planted  for  windbreaks,  for  they  are  very 
hardy  and  thrive  under  the  greatest  neglect;  and  for  this  purpose 
they  may  be  planted  8  to  20  feet  apart.  The  Russians  make  ex- 
cellent screens.  They  stand  clipping  well.  The  fruit  of  the  Russians 
varies  in  quality,  as  the  trees  are  usually  directly  from  seed;  but  now 
and  then  a  tree  bears  excellent  fruit. 

New  American,  Trowbridge,  and  Thorburn  are  leading  kinds  of 
fruit-bearing  mulberries  for  the  North,     The  true   Downing   is  not 


MULBERRY — NUTS  —  ORANGE  433 

hardy  in  the  northern  states;  but  New  American  is  often  sold  under 
this  name.  Mulberries  thrive  in  any  good  soil,  and  need  no  special 
treatment. 

Nuts.  —  The  nut  trees  demand  too  much  room  for  most  home- 
ground  fruit  plantations,  although  they  are  also  useful  for  windbreaks 
and  shade.  The  hickories,  all  American,  make  excellent  lawn  trees, 
and  should  be  better  known.  The  filberts  and  cobnuts,  small  trees 
or  bushes,  are  not  successfully  grown  in  this  country  except  in  very 
special  cases. 

The  commercial  nut-growing  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  is 
chiefly  of  almonds  (p.  415),  walnuts,  and  pecans,  with  some  attempt 
at  chestnuts.  Of  these  the  chestnut  is  the  most  adaptable  for  home 
places  in  the  northeastern  section. 

Of  chestnuts  there  are  three  types  in  cultivation:  the  European, 
the  Japanese,  and  the  American.  The  American,  or  native  chestnuts, 
of  which  there  are  several  improved  varieties,  are  the  hardiest  and 
most  reliable,  and  the  nuts  are  the  sweetest,  but  they  are  also  the  small- 
est. The  Japanese  varieties  are  usually  injured  by  the  winter  in  cen- 
tral New  York.  The  European  varieties  are  somewhat  hardier,  and 
some  of  the  varieties  will  thrive  in  the  northern  states.  Chestnuts 
are  very  easily  grown,  although  the  bark  disease  (p.  208)  now  threatens 
them.  They  usually  bear  better  when  two  or  more  trees  are  planted 
near  each  other.  Sprouts  in  old  chestnut  clearings  are  often  allowed 
to  remain,  and  sometimes  they  are  grafted  to  the  improved  varieties. 
The  young  trees  may  be  grafted  in  the  spring  by  the  whip-graft  or  cleft- 
graft  method;  but  the  cions  should  be  perfectly  dormant,  and  the 
operation  should  be  very  carefully  done.  Even  with  the  best  work- 
manship, a  considerable  percentage  of  the  grafts  are  likely  to  fail  or 
to  break  off  after  two  or  three  years.  The  most  popular  single  variety 
of  chestnut  is  the  Paragon,  which  bears  large  and  excellent  nuts  when 
the  tree  is  very  young.  When  the  home  ground  is  large  enough,  two 
or  three  of  these  trees  should  be  planted  near  the  borders. 

Orange.  —  Oranges  are  grown  extensively  in  Florida,  in  places 
along  the  Gulf,  and  in  many  parts  of  California,  but  in  the  most  favored 
sections  there  is  occasionally  some  injury  from  cold  or  frost  to  the 
trees  or  fruit. 


434  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

The  soil  preferred  for  oranges  in  California  is  a  rich,  deep  alluviunn., 
avoiding  hard-pan  or  adobe  subsoils.  Stagnant  water  in  the  subsoil 
is  a  fatal  defect.  Although  they  can  be  grown  near  the  ocean  at  a 
lower  level,  an  elevation  of  600  to  1200  feet  is  generally  desirable. 
While  southern  California  is  particularly  adapted  to  orange  culture, 
the  fruit  is  successfully  raised  along  the  foot-hills  of  the  San  Joaquin 
and  Sacramento  valleys  and  in  other  parts  of  the  state. 

In  Florida,  pine  lands  with  a  clay  subsoil  are  generally  preferred  for 
oranges,  but  if  properly  handled,  good  results  can  be  obtained  from 
hammock  land.  As  elevated  spots  cannot  be  secured,  a  timber  belt 
surrounding  the  orchard  or  along  the  north  and  west  sides  is 
desirable. 

The  distance  for  the  large-growing  kinds  of  orange  in  the  orchard 
is  from  25  to  30  feet  each  way,  but  the  half-dwarf  kinds,  such  as 
Bahia  or  Washington  Navel,  may  be  as  close  as  20  feet  each  way, 
although  25  feet  will  be  desirable.  If  the  roots  are  sacked,  the 
trees  should  be  placed  in  the  hole  without  removing  the  cover- 
ing, and  the  soil  should  then  be  packed  about  them;  but  if  they 
are  puddled,  a  mound  should  be  made  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole.  In 
the  center  an  opening  should  be  made  into  which  the  tap-root  can  be 
inserted.  After  the  soil  has  been  firmly  packed  about  it,  the  other 
roots  should  be  spread  out  and  the  hole  filled  with  good  soil,  packing 
it  carefully.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  roots  are  not  exposed  in 
handling  the  trees,  and  if  the  weather  is  hot  and  dry,  the  tops  should  be 
shaded.  Water  may  often  be  used  with  good  results  in  settling  the 
soil  about  the  roots. 

W^hen  transplanted,  the  tops  should  be  cut  back  in  proportion  to 
the  amount  of  roots  lost  in  digging  the  trees.  The  head  is  usually 
started  with  the  branches  about  2  feet  from  the  ground.  Each  year 
w^hile  the  trees  are  small,  the  strong  shoots  should  be  cut  back  to 
preserve  a  symmetrical  form  and  the  weak  and  surplus  shoots  should 
be  removed. 

The  cultivation  of  orange  orchards  should  be  the  same  as  recom- 
mended for  other  fruits,  except  that  as  they  grow  in  hot,  dry  climates, 
it  should  be  even  more  thorough,  that  the  evaporation  of  moisture 
from  the  soil  may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  California  growers  have 
found  that  by  frequent  shallow  cultivation  they  can  reduce  the  amount 


ORANGE  — PEACH  '  435 

of  water  that  must  be  applied  by  irrigation,  and  that  frequent  tillage 
and  a  little  water  will  give  better  results  than  little  or  no  cultivation 
and  a  large  amount  of  water.  The  amount  of  water  required  will 
also  depend  on  the  season  and  the  character  of  the  soil.  Thus  on  strong 
soils  and  after  a  heavy  rainfall  no  irrigation  will  be  required,  while 
sandy  soils  will  need  irrigating  as  often  as  once  in  three  or  four  weeks 
from  May  to  October.  As  a  general  rule,  two  or  three  irrigations  in 
a  season  will  be  ample.  When  used  at  all,  water  should  be  applied  in 
sufficient  quantities  to  wet  down  to  the  roots  of  the  trees.  Frequent 
scanty  waterings  may  do  much  harm.  The  water  is  usually  applied 
in  furrows,  and  for  young  trees  there  should  be  one  on  either  side  of 
each  row,  but  as  the  roots  extend  the  number  should  be  increased, 
until  when  five  or  six  years  old  the  entire  orchard  should  be  irrigated 
from  furrows  4  or  5  feet  apart.  In  Florida,  irrigation  is  not  prac- 
ticed. 

Cover-cropping  in  winter  is  now  common  in  Florida  and  California, 
some  of  the  leguminous  crops  being  used. 

Varieties  of  the  orange. 

Among  the  best  varieties  are:  Bahia,  commonly  known  as  Wash- 
ington Navel,  Thompson  Improved,  Maltese  Blood,  Mediterranean 
Sweet,  Paper  Rind  St.  Michael,  and  Valencia.  Homosassa,  Magnum 
Bonum,  Nonpareil,  Boone,  Parson  Brown,  Pineapple,  and  Hart  are 
favorites  in  Florida.  The  tangerines  and  mandarins,  or  the  ''  kid- 
glove  "  oranges,  have  a  thin  rind  that  is  easily  detached  from  the  rather 
dry  pulp.  Orange  trees  are  frequently  injured  by  various  scale  in- 
sects, but  for  several  of  the  most  troublesome  kinds,  insect  parasites 
have  been  found  that  keep  them  partially  or  wholly  in  check,  and  for 
others  the  trees  are  sprayed,  or  furaigated  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas. 

Peach.  —  Given  the  proper  exposure,  peaches  may  be  fruited  in 
many  sections  where  now  it  is  thought  impossible  to  have  a  crop.  It 
is  usually  the  practice  of  the  amateur  to  set  peach  trees  in  the  shelter 
of  some  building,  exposed  on  the  south  or  east  to  the  sun,  and  "  m  a 
pocket"  as  regards  winds.  This  should  be  reversed,  except  in  the 
close  vicinity  of  large  bodies  of  water.  The  fruit-buds  of  peaches  will 
stand  very  cold  weather  when  perfectly  dormant,  often  as  low  as  12*^ 


436  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

or  18°  below  zero  in  New  York;  but  if  the  buds  once  become  swollen, 
comparatively  light  freezing  will  destroy  the  crop.  Therefore,  if  the 
trees  be  set  on  elevations  where  a  constant  air  drainage  may  be  ob- 
tained, sheltered,  if  at  all,  on  the  south  and  east  from  the  warming 
influence  of  the  sun,  the  buds  will  remain  dormant  until  the  ground 
becomes  warm,  and  the  chances  of  a  failure  will  be  lessened.  This 
advice  applies  mostly  to  interior  sections. 

A  well-drained,  sandy  loam  or  gravelly  soil  suits  the  peach  better 
than  a  heavy  soil;  but  if  the  heavier  soil  is  well  drained,  good  crops 
may  be  secured. 

Peaches  are  short-lived  at  best,  and  one  should  be  satisfied  with 
three  or  four  crops  from  each  tree.  They  bear  young,  usually  a  partial 
crop  the  third  year.  If  a  crop  may  be  had  every  other  year  until  the 
trees  are  eight  or  ten  years  old,  they  will  have  well  repaid  the  effort 
of  cultivation.  But  they  often  bear  twice  this  long.  Young  trees 
may  be  set  every  four  or  five  years  to  replace  older  ones,  thus  having 
trees  at  a  bearing  age  at  all  times  on  a  small  place.  Trees  should  be 
set  14  to  18  feet  apart  each  way. 

Peach  trees  are  always  bought  when  they  are  one  year  old,  that  is, 
one  year  from  the  bud.  For  example,  the  bud  is  inserted  in  the  fall 
of  1909.  It  remains  dormant  until  the  spring  of  1910,  when  it  pushes 
into  vigorous  growth;  and  in  the  fall  of  1910  the  tree  is  ready  for  sale. 
Peach  trees  that  are  more  than  a  year  old  are  scarcely  w^orth  the  buy- 
ing. It  is  a  common  practice,  when  setting  peach  trees,  to  prune  them 
back  to  a  whip,  leaving  a  stub  bearing  not  more  than  one  bud  where 
each  branch  is  cut  off. 

The  three  great  enemies  of  the  peach  are  the  borer,  the  yellows, 
and  the  curculio. 

The  borer  is  best  handled  by  digging  it  out  every  spring  and  fall. 
Trees  attacked  by  the  borer  have  an  exudation  of  gum  about  the 
crown.  If  the  borers  are  dug  out  twice  a  year,  they  will  not  get 
sufficient  start  to  make  the  operation  very  laborious.  It  is  the  only 
sure  way  (p.  200). 

The  yellows  is  a  communicable  disease,  the  cause  of  which  is  not 
definitely  known.  It  shows  itself  in  the  fruit  ripening  prematurely, 
with  distinct  red  spots  which  extend  through  the  flesh,  and  later  by 
the  throwing  out  of  fine,  branching,  twiggy  tufts  along  the  main 


PEACH — PEAR 


437 


branches  (Fig.  215).     The  only  treatment  is  to  pull  out  the  trees  and 
burn  them.     Other  trees  may  be  set  in  the  same  places. 

The  curculio  must  be  captured  by  jarring  on  sheets  (see  Plum). 

Varieties  of  the  peach. 

For  home  use  it  is  advisable  to  provide  varieties  that  will  ripen  in 
succession,  but  for  market  purposes,  in  most  sections,  the  medium  and 
late  kinds  should  be  most  extensively  planted.  Although  there  are 
many  varieties  that  have  a  local  reputation,  but  are  not  commonly 
found  in  the  nurseries,  the  following  kinds  are  well  known,  and  can  be 
generally  grown  with  success :  Alexander,  Hale  Early,  Rivers,  St.  John, 
Bishop,  Connett  (Southern  Early),  Carmai:,  Crawford  (Early  and 
Late),  Oldmixon,  Lewis,  Champion,  Sneed,  Greensboro,  Kalamazoo, 
Stump,  Elberta,  Ede  (Capt.  Ede),  Stevens  (Stevens'  Rareripe),  Crosby, 
Gold  Drop,  Reeves,  Chairs,  Smock,  Salway,  and  Levy  (Henrietta). 

Pear.  —  No  fruit 
plantation  should  be 
considered  complete 
without  trees  of  vari- 
ous kinds  of  pears, 
ripening  fruits  from 
early  in  August  till 
winter.  The  late  va- 
rieties are  generally 
good  keepers,  and  ex- 
tend the  season  into 
February,  thus  sup- 
plying fruit  for  six  or 
seven  months. 

As  the  pear  grows 
to  perfection  on 
quince,  the  dwarf  tree 
is  pecuharly  adapted 
to  planting  on  small 
home  grounds,  and 
is    often    used    as    a  281.  Seckel  pear. 


438 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


boundary  plant,  or  to  serve  the  purpose  of  a  screen.     These  dwari 
trees  should  be  set  deep  —  4  to  6  inches  below  the  union  —  to  prevent 


282.    Duchesse  d'Angouleme  pear. 

the  stock  from  growing.  Dwarf  trees  may  be  set  as  near  together  as  10 
to  16  feet  (p.  410),  while  the  standard  or  tall-growing  pears  should  be 
set  18  to  25  feet  apart.     Trees  are  planted  when  two  or  three  years  old. 


283.   The  Kieffer  pear. 

The  pear  thrives  on  clay  soil,  if  well  under-drained,  and  for  this 
reason  may  succeed  in  places  where  other  fruits  might  fail.  A  good, 
steady  growth  should  be  maintained,  but  the  use    of  nitrogenous 


PEAK  —  PLUM 


439 


manures  should  be  avoided,  as  they  tend  to  make  a  rank  growth  and 
invite  attacks  of  pear  blight,  which  is  the  worst  enemy  of  the  pear 
(p.  211). 

Varieties  of  the  pear. 

As  a  selection  to  supply  a  succession  of  varieties  throughout  the 
season,  the  following  list  is  recommended :  — 

Early.  —  Summer  Doyenne,  Bloodgood,  Clapp,  Osband,  Elizabeth 
(Manning's  Elizabeth). 

Autumn.  —  Bartlett,  Boussock,  Flemish  (Flemish  Beauty),  Buffum, 
Howell,  Seckel  (Fig.  281),  Louise  Bonne,  An- 
gouleme  (Duchesse  d'Angouleme)  (Fig.  282) ^ 
Sheldon. 

Winter.  —  Anjou,  Clairgeau,  Lawrence, 
Kieffer  (Figs.  283,  284),  Winter  Nelis,  and 
Easter  Beurre. 

For  ordinary  market  purposes  the  following 
have  been  proved  valuable  :  Bartlett,  Howell, 
Anjou,  Clairgeau,  and  Lawrence.  In  the 
central  and  southern  states,  Kieffer  is  grown 
successfully.  For  home  use  this  variety  is 
not  to  be  recommended  in  the  North,  because 
of  its  poor  quality  and  smaller  size. 

For      growing     as      dwarfs,     Angouleme 
(Duchesse     d 'Angouleme),     Louise     Bonne, 
Anjou,  Clairgeau,  and  Lawrence  are  most  popular,  but  many  other 
varieties  thrive  on  the  quince. 

Plum.  —  Of  plums  there  are  three  general  or  common  types :  first, 
the  common  Domestica  or  European  plum,  which  gives  rise  to  all  the 
older  varieties,  like  Lombard,  Bradshaw,  Green  Gage,  the  Prunes,  the 
Egg  plums,  the  Damsons,  and  the  like ;  second,  the  Japanese  plums, 
which  have  become  popular  within  the  last  twenty  years,  and  which  are 
adapted  to  a  wider  range  of  country  than  the  Domesticas;  third,  the 
native  plums  of  several  species  or  types,  which  are  adapted  to  the 
plains,  the  middle  and  southern  states,  and  some  kinds  to  the  cold 
North. 


284.    Kiefiferpear. 


440  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

Wherever  the  Domestica  and  Japanese  plums  can  be  grown,  the 
native  plums  are  not  destined  to  become  popular;  but  many  of  the 
natives  are  much  hardier  than  others,  and  are  therefore  adapted  to 
regions  in  which  the  Domestica  and  Japanese  are  not  safe.  Others  of 
them  are  well  adapted  to  the  middle  and  southern  states.  The  Domes- 
tica and  Japanese  plums  are  considerably  hardier  than  peaches,  but 
not  so  hardy  as  the  apple.  The  northern  limit  of  their  general  cul- 
tivation is  the  southern  peninsula  of  Michigan,  central  and  southern 
Ontario,  central  New  York,  and  central  New  England. 

Plums  thrive  on  a  great  variety  of  soils,  but  they  do  better,  as  a 
rule,  on  those  that  arc  rather  heavy  and  have  a  considerable  content 
of  clay.  In  fact,  many  of  the  varieties  will  thrive  on  clay  as  hard  as 
that  in  which  pears  will  grow.  On  the  other  hand,  they  often  thrive 
well  in  light,  and  even  almost  sandy  soils. 

The  trees  are  set  when  they  are  two  and  three  3^ears  from  the  bud. 
It  is  preferable  to  have  plum  trees  on  stocks  of  the  same  species,  but 
it  is  not  always  possible  to  secure  them  at  the  nurseries.  In  the  South, 
plums  are  worked  mostly  on  peach  roots,  and  these  make  excellent 
trees  where  the  climate  is  not  too  severe,  and  especially  on  the 
lighter  lands  on  which  they  are  planted  in  the  South.  In  the  North 
the  larger  part  of  the  plum  stocks  are  grown  on  the  Myrobalan  plum 
roots.  This  Myrobalan  is  an  Old  World  species  of  plum,  of  smaller 
growth  than  the  Domestica.  This  stock,  therefore,  tends  to  dwarf 
the  tree,  and  it  is  also  likely  to  throw  up  sprouts  from  the  roots. 

Plum  trees  are  set  12  to  18  feet  apart.  Many  growers  like  to  set 
them  8  feet  apart  in  rows,  and  have  the  rows  from  16  to  20  feet  apart. 

Plums  are  pruned  much  the  same  as  apples  and  pears.  That  is, 
the  top  is  thinned  out  from  year  to  year,  and  all  superfluous  branches 
and  broken  or  diseased  wood  are  removed.  If  the  soil  is  very  strong 
and  the  trees  are  close  together,  it  may  be  well  to  head  them  in  a  little 
each  year,  especially  those  varieties  which  grow  very  strong  and  robast. 

Pests  and  diseases  (pp.  202,  211). 

There  are  four  leading  difliculties  in  the  growing  of  plums  —  leaf- 
blight,  fruit-rot,  black-knot,  and  curculio. 

The  leaf-blight  usually  appears  about  midsummer,  the  leaves  be- 
coming spotted  and  dropping  off.     The  remedy  is  to  spray  thoroughly 


PL  UM  441 

with  bordeaux  mixture,  beginning  soon  after  the  fruits  have  set,  and 
before  the  trouble  begins  to  show. 

The  fruit-rot  may  be  prevented  by  the  same  means  —  that  is,  by 
spraying  with  bordeaux  mixture.  It  is  usually  best  to  begin  just  after 
the  fruits  are  well  set.  A  very  important  consideration  in  the  checking 
of  this  disease  is  to  thin  the  fruit  so  that  it  does  not  hang  in  clusters. 
If  one  fruit  touches  another,  the  rot  spreads  from  fruit  to  fruit  in  spite 
of  the  spraying.  Some  varieties,  as  Lombard  and  Abundance,  are 
specially  susceptible  to  this  injury. 

The  black-knot  is  best  kept  in  check  by  cutting  out  the  knots  when- 
ever they  can  be  seen,  and  burning  them.  As  soon  as  the  leaves  drop, 
the  orchard  should  be  gone  over  and  all  knots  taken  out.  Orchards 
that  are  thoroughly  sprayed  with  bordeaux  mixture  for  the  leaf- 
blight  and  fruit-rot  fungus  are  less  liable  to  attacks  of  black-knot. 

The  curculio,  or  the  insect  which  is  the  parent  of  the  worms  in  the 
fruit,  is  the  inveterate  enemy  of  the  plum  and  other  stone  fruits.  The 
mature  beetle  lays  the  eggs  in  the  fruits  when  they  are  very  small, 
usually  beginning  its  work  about  as  soon  as  the  flowers  fall.  These 
eggs  soon  hatch,  and  the  little  maggot  bores  into  the  fruit.  Those 
fruits  that  are  attacked  whilst  very  young  ordinarily  fall  from  the 
tree,  but  those  attacked  when  they  are  half  or  more  grown,  may 
adhere  to  the  tree,  but  remain  wormy  and  gummy  at  the  picking  time. 
The  mature  beetles  are  sluggish  in  the  mornings,  and  are  easily  jarred 
from  the  trees.  Taking  advantage  of  this  fact,  the  fruit-grower  may 
jar  them  on  sheets;  or,  in  large  orchards,  into  a  large  canvas  hopper, 
which  is  wheeled  from  tree  to  tree  upon  a  wheelbarrow-like  frame,  and 
under  the  apex  of  which  is  a  tin  can  into  which  the  insects  roll.  There 
is  a  slit  or  opening  in  one  side  of  the  hopper,  which  allows  the  tree  to 
stand  nearly  in  the  middle  of  the  canvas.  The  operator  then  gives  the 
tree  two  or  three  sharp  jars  with  a  padded  pole  or  mallet.  The  edges  of 
the  hopper  are  then  quickly  shaken  with  the  hands  and  the  insects  roll 
down  into  the  tin  receptacle.  In  this  receptacle  there  is  kerosene  oil, 
or  it  may  be  emptied  from  time  to  time.  Just  how  long  this  machine 
is  to  be  run  in  the  orchard  will  depend  entirely  on  circumstances.  It  is 
advisable  to  use  the  catcher  soon  after  the  blossoms  fall,  for  the  purpose 
of  finding  out  how  abundant  the  insects  are.  If  a  few  insects  are 
caught  from  each  tree,  there  is  indication  that  there  are  enough  of  the 


442  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

pests  to  make  serious  trouble.  If  after  a  few  days  the  insects  seem  to 
have  disappeared,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  continue  the  hunt.  In 
some  years,  especially  in  those  succeeding  a  very  heavy  crop,  it  maybe 
necessary  to  run  the  curculio-catcher  every  morning  for  four  or  five 
weeks;  but,  as  a  rule,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  use  it  oftener  than  two 
or  three  times  a  week  during  that  season;  and  sometimes  the  season 
may  be  shortened  by  one  half.  The  insects  fall  most  readily  when  the 
weather  is  cool,  and  it  is  best,  therefore,  to  get  through  the  whole  or- 
chard, if  possible,  before  noon.  On  cloudy  days,  however,  the  insects 
may  be  caught  all  day.  A  smart  man  can  attend  to  300  or  400  full- 
bearing  trees  in  six  hours  if  the  ground  has  been  well  rolled  or  firmed,  as 
it  should  be  before  the  bugging  operation  begins.  The  same  treatment 
applies  to  the  saving  of  peaches  and  rarely,  also,  of  sour  cherries. 

Varieties  of  the  plum. 

The  following  varieties  of  European  origin  will  be  found  desirable 
for  growing  in  the  northern  and  eastern  states :  Bradshaw,  Imperial 
Gage,  Lombard,  McLaughlin,  Pond,  Quackenbos,  Copper,  Jefferson, 
Italian  Prune  (Fellenberg),  Shropshire,  Golden  Drop  (Co«.3  Golden 
Drop),  Bavay  or  Reine  Claude,  Grand  Duke,  Monarch. 

Several  of  the  Japanese  varieties  are  also  well  adapted  to  growing 
in  these  sections,  as  well  as  in  the  states  farther  south.  The  trees  are 
generally  hardy,  but  they  bloom  early,  and  are  likely  to  be  injured  by 
late  frosts  in  some  localities.  Among  the  better  kinds  are  the  Red 
June,  Abundance,  Chabot,  Burbank,  and  Satsuma. 

Few  of  the  above  sorts  are  hardy  in  the  Northwest,  and  growers 
there  have  to  rely  on  varieties  of  native  species.  Among  these  are: 
Forest  Garden,  Wyant,  De  Soto,  Rollingstone,  Weaver,  Quaker,  and 
Hawkeye.  Farther  south  still  other  classes  of  plums  have  been  intro- 
duced, among  them  being  Wildgoose,  Clinton,  Moreman,  Miner,  and 
Golden  Beauty.  And  still  farther  south.  Transparent,  Texas  Belle 
(Paris  Belle),  Newman,  Lone  Star,  and  El  Paso  are  grown. 

Quince.  —  Although  not  largely  grown,  quinces  generally  find  a 
ready  sale,  and  they  are  desirable  for  home  use.  The  trees  are  usually 
planted  about  12  feet  each  way,  and  may  be  trained  either  in  a  shrub  or 
tree  form,  but  it  will  generally  be  best  to  grow  them  with  a  short  trunk. 


Q  UINCE  —  RA  SPBE  ER  Y 


443 


They  succeed  best  on  a  deep,  moist,  and  fertile  soil.  They  require  much 
the  same  care  as  the  pear.  The  insects  and  diseases  by  which  they  are 
attacked  are  also  the  same  as  for  that  fruit.  Blight  is  particularly  bad. 
The  fruit  is  borne  on  short  shoots  of  the  same  season,  and  strong  head- 
ing-in  of  the  growth  in  winter  removes  a  good  part  of  the  buds  from 
which  the  shoots  arise.  The  Orange  is  the  most  common  variety,  but 
Champion,  Meech  (Fig.  285),  and  Rea  are  sometimes  grown. 


285.   Meech  Quince  (Meech's  Prolific). 


Raspberry.  —  Both  the  red  and  black  raspberries  are  essentials  of  a 
good  garden.  A  few  plants  of  each  will  produce  a  supply  of  berries  for 
a  family  through  six  or  eight  weeks,  provided  both  early  and  late 
varieties  are  planted. 

A  cool  situation,  soil  that  will  hold  moisture  without  being  wet,  and 
thorough  preparation  of  the  ground,  are  the  conditions  necessary  to 
success.  The  blackcap  raspberries  should  be  set  3  to  4  feet  apart,  the 
rows  6  or  7  feet;  the  red  varieties  3  feet  apart,  the  rows  5  feet  apart. 
Spring  setting  is  usually  preferable. 

The  shoots  of  raspberries  sent  up  one  season  fruit  and  die  the  follow- 
ing year,  as  in  blackberries  and  dewberries. 

Most  of  the  blackcap  varieties  naturally  throw  out  side  branches  the 
first  season,  and  with  such  it  is  a  good  plan  to  pinch  back  the  new  canes 
as  soon  as  they  have  reached  a  height  of  2  to  3  feet,  according  to 
the  full  height  of  the  variety.     This  will  hasten  the  throwing  out  of 


444  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

side  shoots,  upon  which  fruit  will  be  borne  the  following  year.  As  soon 
as  severe  freezing  weather  is  over  in  the  spring,  these  side  shoots  should 
be  cut  back  9  to  12  inches,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  canes  and 
the  number  of  side  branches  upon  them. 

The  same  method  of  pruning  is  advisable  with  red  varieties  like 
Cuthbert,  which  naturally  branch  freely.  Other  sorts,  like  King, 
Hansell,  Marlboro,  Turner,  and  Thwack,  that  seldom  branch,  should 
not  be  pinched  back  in  summer,  as,  even  though  this  might  induce 
them  to  send  out  shoots,  the  branches  will  be  weak,  and  if  they  survive 
the  winter,  will  produce  less  fruit  than  would  the  strong  buds  upon  the 
main  canes  had  they  not  been  forced  into  growth. 


286.   A  rooting  tip  of  the  black  raspberry. 

As  soon  as  the  crop  has  been  gathered,  and  the  old  canes  are  dead, 
they  should  be  removed,  and  at  the  same  time  all  of  the  surplus  new 
shoots  should  be  cut  away.  From  four  to  five  good  canes  will  be  suffi- 
cient for  each  hill,  while  in  rows  the  number  may  be  from  two  to  three 
in  each  foot. 

Pruned  in  this  way,  nearly  all  varieties  will  have  stems  sufficiently 
large  to  support  themselves,  but  as  there  will  be  more  or  less  breaking 
down  and  injury  to  the  fruit  from  the  bending  over  of  the  canes,  many 
growers  prefer  to  support  them  by  means  of  stakes  or  trellises.  Stakes 
may  be  set  in  each  hill,  or  for  matted  rows  stout  stakes  3  feet  high 
are  driven  at  intervals  of  40  feet  and  a  No.  10  galvanized  wire  is 
stretched  along  the  row,  to  which  the  canes  are  tied.  It  would  be  a 
saving  of  labor  if  a  wire  is  stretched  either  side  of  the  row,  as  then  no 
tying  will  be  required. 


RASPBERRY  —  STRAWBERRY 


445 


287.   Sprouting  habit  of  red  raspberry. 


If  it  is  desired  to  secure  new  plants,  the  ends  of  the  branches  of  the 
black  varieties  should  be  covered  with  soil  about  the  middle  of  August; 
when  the  tips  are  seen  to  divide  into  several  slender  shoots,  and  to  take 
root  (Fig.  286) ;  these  can  be  taken  up  and  planted  the  following  spring. 
While  the  suckers 
that  spring  from 
the  roots  of  red 
varieties  (Fig.  287) 
may  be  used  in 
propagating  them, 
it  will  be  better  to 
use  plants  grown 
from  root-cut- 
tings, as  they  will 
have  much  better 
roots. 

Raspberries  may  be  bent  over  to  the  ground  so  that  the  snow  will 
protect  them,  in  severe  climates. 

For  red  rust,  pull  out  the  plant,  root  and  branch,  and  burn  it.  Short 
rotations  —  fruiting  the  plants  only  two  or  three  years  —  and  burning 
the  old  canes  and  trimmings,  will  do  much  to  keep  raspberry  plantations 
healthy.     Spraying  will  have  some  effect  in  combating  anthracnose. 

Varieties  of  raspberries. 

Of  the  black  sorts  the  following  will  be  found  desirable:  Palmer, 
Conrath,  Kansas,  and  Eureka,  which  ripen  in  the  order  named.  In 
some  sections  the  Oregg  is  still  valuable,  but  it  is  somewhat  lacking  in 
hardiness.  Ohio  is  a  favorite  variety  for  evaporating.  Of  the  purple- 
cap  varieties,  Shaffer  and  Columbian  generally  succeed.  Among  the 
red  varieties  none  are  more  universally  successful  than  Cuthbert. 
King  is  a  promising  early  variety,  and  Loudon  is  a  valuable  late  kind. 
]\Iany  growers  find  Marlboro  and  Turner  well  worthy  of  cultivation, 
although  rather  local  in  their  adaptations;  while  for  home  use,  Golden 
Queen,  a  yellow  Cuthbert,  is  much  liked. 

Strawberry.  —  Every  one  may  grow  strawberries,  yet  the  saying  that 
strawberries  will  grow  on  any  soil  is  misleading,  although  true.     Some 


446  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

varieties  of  strawberries  will  grow  on  certain  soils  better  than  othei 
varieties.  What  these  varieties  are  can  be  determined  only  by  an 
actual  test,  but  it  is  a  safe  rule  to  choose  such  varieties  as  prove  good 
in  many  localities. 

As  to  the  methods  of  culture,  so  much  depends  on  the  size  of  the 
plot,  the  purpose  for  which  the  fruit  is  wanted,  and  the  extent  of  care 
one  is  willing  to  give,  that  no  set  rule  can  be  given  for  a  garden  in  which 
but  few  plants  are  grown  and  extra  care  can  be  given.  The  grower  must 
always  be  sure  that  his  varieties  will  "  fertihze  ";  that  is,  that  he  has 
sufficient  pollen-bearing  kinds  to  insure  a  crop. 

With  the  highest  culture,  good  results  can  be  obtained  from  the 
hill  system  of  growing  strawberries.  For  this  the  plants  may  be  set 
in  rows  3  feet  apart  and  1  foot  in  the  row,  or  if  it  be  worked 
both  ways,  they  may  be  from  2  to  2^  feet  each  way.  In  the  small 
garden,  where  a  horse  cannot  be  used,  the  plants  are  frequently 
set  1  foot  each  way,  arranging  them  in  beds 
of  three  to  five  rows,  with  walks  2  feet  wide 
between  them.  As  fast  as  runners  form,  they 
should  be  removed,  so  that  the  entire  vigor  of 
the  plant  will  be  exerted  in  strengthening  the 
crown.  When  extra  fine  specimen  berries  are 
288.  StrawbeiTy  plant  desired,  the  plant  may  be  held  above  the  ground 
supported  by  a  wire  by  a  wire  frame,  as  shown  in  Fig.  288. 
^^^^'  Or  strawberries  may  be  grown  b}^  the  narrow 

matted-row  system,  in  which  the  runners,  before  rooting,  should  be 
turned  along  the  rows  at  a  distance  of  4  to  6  inches  from  the  parent 
plant.  These  runners  should  be  the  first  ones  made  by  the  plant  and 
should  not  be  allowed  to  root  themselves,  but  "  set  in."  This  is  not  a 
difficult  operation ;  and  if  the  runners  are  separated  from  the  parent 
plant  as  soon  as  they  become  well  established,  the  drain  on  that  plant 
is  not  great.  All  other  runners  should  be  cut  off  as  they  start.  The 
row  should  be  about  12  inches  wide  at  fruiting  time  (Fig.  289).  Each 
plant  should  have  sufficient  feeding  ground,  full  sunlight,  and  a  firm 
hold  in  the  soil.  This  matted-row  system  is  perhaps  as  good  a  method, 
either  in  a  private  garden  or  field  culture,  as  could  be  practiced.  With 
a  little  care  in  hoeing,  weeding,  and  cutting  off  runners,  the  beds  seem 
to  produce  as  large  crops  the  second  year  as  the  first. 


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XXVIII.  Wall-training  of  a  pear  tree. 


STRAWBERRY 


447 


The  old  way  of  growing  a  crop  was  to  set  the  plants  10  to  12  inches 
apart,  in  rows  3  feet  apart,  and  allow  them  to  run  and  root  at  will,  the 
results  being  a  mass  of  small,  crowded  plants,  each  striving  to  obtain 
plant-food  and  none  of  them  succeeding  in  getting  enough.  The  last, 
or  outside  runners,  having  but  the  tips  of  their  roots  in  the  ground,  are 
moved  by  the  wind,  heaved  by  the  frost,  or  have  the  exposed  roots 
dried  out  by  the  wind  and  sun. 

Ground  rich  in  potash  produces  the  firmest  and  best  flavored  berries. 
Excessive  use  of  stable  manure,  usually  rich  in  nitrogen,  should  be 
avoided,  as  tending  to  make  too  rank  growth  of  foliage  and  berries  of  a 
soft  texture. 


289.   A  narrow  matted  row  of  strawberries. 


For  most  purposes,  strawberries  should  be  set  as  early  in  the  spring 
as  the  ground  can  be  worked.  The  planting  can  be  done  with  a  trowel, 
spade,  or  dibble,  taking  care  to  spread  the  roots  out  as  much  as  possible 
and  to  press  the  soil  firmly  about  them,  holding  the  plant  so  that  the 
bud  will  be  just  above  the  surface.  If  the  season  is  late  and  the  weather 
is  hot  and  dry,  some  or  all  of  the  older  leaves  should  be  removed.  If 
water  is  used,  it  should  be  poured  about  the  roots  before  the  hole  is 
filled  and  as  soon  as  it  has  soaked  away  the  remaining  soil  should  be 
packed  about  the  plants.  During  the  first  season  the  blossom  stalks 
should  be  removed  as  soon  as  they  appear,  and  the  runners  should  be 
restricted  to  a  space  about  1  foot  wide.     Some  persons  prefer  still 


448  MANUAL   OF  GARDENING 

further  to  reduce  the  number  of  plants,  and  after  layering  from  three 
to  four  plants  between  those  originally  set,  to  remove  all  others. 

Strawberries  are  often  set  in  August  or  September,  but  this  is  advis- 
able only  for  small  patches  or  when  the  soil  is  in  the  best  possible  condi- 
tion and  the  highest  culture  is  given.  For  garden  culture,  it  may  pay 
to  secure  potted  plants  (Fig.  290).  These  are  sold  by  many  nursery- 
men, and  they  may  be  obtained  by  plunging  pots  beneath  the  runners 
as  soon  as  the  fruiting  season  is  passed.  In  August,  the  plant  should 
fill  the  pot  (which  should  be  3-inch  or  4-inch)  and  the  plant  is  ready 
for  setting  in  the  plantation.  Such  plants  should  bear  a  good  crop 
the  following  spring. 

During  the  first  season  strawberries  should  be  frequently  worked, 
rather  deep  at  first,  but  as  the  weather  be- 
comes warm  and  the  roots  fill  the  ground, 
tillage  should  be  restricted  to  a  depth  of  not 
more  than  2  inches.  The  weeds  should  never 
be  allowed  to  get  a  start,  and  if  the  season 
is  dry,  cultivation  should  be  so  frequent 
that  the  surface  soil  should  at  all  times  be 
loose  and  open,  forming  a  dust  mulch  to  con- 
serve the  moisture.  If  the  fall  is  moist  and 
the  plantation  free  from  weeds,  there  will 
290.  A  potted^strawberry     ^^^  jj^^j^  occasion  for  cultivation  after  the  first 

of  September,  until  just  before  the  ground 
freezes  up,  when  a  thorough  cultivation  should  be  given.  In  addition 
to  the  horse  cultivation,  the  hoe  should  be  used  whenever  necessary  to 
loosen  the  soil  about  the  plants  and  to  destroy  weeds  that  may  start 
in  the  row. 

After  the  ground  has  frozen,  it  will  be  advisable  to  mulch  the  plants 
by  covering  the  space  between  the  rows  with  some  waste  material  to 
the  depth  of  about  2  inches.  Directly  over  the  plants  a  covering  of 
1  inch  will  generally  suffice.  The  material  used  should  be  free  from 
the  seeds  of  grass  and  weeds,  and  should  be  such  as  will  remain  upon 
the  beds  without  blowing  off  and  that  will  not  pack  down  too  closely 
upon  the  plants.  Marsh  hay  makes  an  ideal  mulch,  but  where  it  can- 
not be  secured,  straw  will  answer.  Corn  fodder  makes  a  clean  but 
rather  coarse  mulch,  and  where  they  can  be  held  in  place  by  some  other 


STRAWBERRY  449 

material,  forest  leaves  do  well  as  a  mulch  between  the  rows.  In  the 
spring  the  straw  should  be  removed  from  over  the  plants  and  allowed  to 
remain  between  the  rows  as  a  mulch,  or  all  of  it  may  be  removed  and 
the  soil  worked  with  a  cultivator. 

A  large  crop  should  be  produced  the  second  season ;  many  persons 
think  it  best  to  renew  the  plantation  each  year,  but  if  the  plants  are 
healthy  and  the  ground  free  from  grass  and  weeds,  the  plantation  can 
often  be  retained  for  a  second  crop.  It  will  be  well  to  plow  the  soil 
away  from  the  rows  so  as  to  leave  but  a  narrow  strip,  and  along  this  the 
old  plants  should  be  cut  out  so  as  to  leave  the  new  plants  about  1 
foot  apart.  If  this  is  done  in  July,  the  rows  should  fill  up  by  winter, 
so  as  to  be  in  about  the  same  condition  as  a  new  bed. 

Insects  and  diseases  of  the  strawberry. 

The  insect  most  commonly  troublesome  to  the  strawberry  grower  is 
the  common  June-bug,  or  May-beetle,  the  larvae  of  which  are  often 
very  common  in  land  that  has  been  in  sod.  Two  years  should  elapse 
before  sod  land  is  used  for  this  crop. 

Cut-worms  are  often  troublesome,  but  plowing  the  land  the  fall  pre- 
vious to  setting  the  plants  will  destroy  many  of  them.  They  can 
be  poisoned  by  sprinkling  about  the  field  clover  or  other  green  plants 
that  have  been  soaked  in  Paris  green  water  (p.  203). 

The  most  common  fungous  disease, of  the  strawberry  is  leaf-blight 
or"  rust,"  which  frequently  causes  much  injury  to  the  foHage,  and  may 
result  in  the  loss  of  the  crop.  Varieties  least  subject  to  the  disease 
should  be  chosen  for  planting,  and  on  suitable  soils  and  well  cared 
for,  there  need  be  little  loss  from  this  disease  if  the  plantation  is  fre- 
quently renewed.  The  rust  and  mildew  may  be  held  in  check  by  bor- 
deaux mixture.  It  is  usually  sufficient  to  spray  after  the  blooming 
season  (or  at  any  time  the  first  year  the  plants  are  set),  in  order  to  secure 
healthy  foHage  for  the  next  year  (p.  213). 

Varieties  of  strawberries. 

For  most  parts  of  the  country,  Haverland,  Warfield,  Bubach,  and 
Gandy  afford  a  succession  and  are  all  hardy  and  productive  varieties. 
The  first  three  are  imperfect-flowered  varieties,  and  some  such  perfect- 
2g 


450  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

flowering  kinds  as  Lowett  or  Bederwood  should  be  provided  to  fer- 
tilize them.  Among  other  varieties  that  do  well  in  most  sections  are 
Brandywine,  Greenville,  Clyde,  and  Woolverton.  Parker  Earle  is  very 
late,  and  is  valuable  for  either  home  use  or  market,  upon  strong,  moist 
soils,  w^here  it  can  have  the  best  of  care.  Belt  (William  Belt)  and  Mar- 
shall have  large,  showy  fruits,  and  do  w^ell  on  strong  soil. 

Excelsior  or  Michel  might  be  added  as  very  early ;  Aroma  is  grown 
very  extensively  in  some  sections;  also  Tennessee  (Tennessee  Pro- 
lific) is  a  very  promising  new  sort  from  Tennessee. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE    GROWING    OF   THE    VEGETABLE    PLANTS 

A  VEGETABLE  garden  is  admittedly  a  part  of  any  home  place 
that  has  a  good  rear  area.  A  purchased  vegetable  is  never  the 
same  as  one  taken  from  a  man's  own  soil  and  representing  his 
own  effort  and  solicitude. 

It  is  essential  to  any  satisfaction  in  vegetable-growing  that  the 
soil  be  rich  and  thoroughly  subdued  and  fined.  The  plantation 
should  also  be  so  arranged  that  the  tilling  can  be  done  with 


291.   Cultivating  the  backache, 

wheel  tools,  and,  where  the  space  will  allow  it,  with  horse  tools. 
The  old-time  garden  bed  (Fig.  291)  consumes  time  and  labor, 
wastes  moisture,  and  is  more  trouble  and  expense  than  it  is  worth. 
The  rows  of  vegetables  should  be  as  long  and  continuous  as 
possible,  to  allow  of  tillage  with  wheel  tools.  If  it  is  not  desired 
to  grow  a  full  row  of  any  one  vegetable,  the  line  may  be  made  up 
of  several  species,  one  following  the  other,  care  being  taken  to 
place  together  such  kinds  as  have  similar  requirements;  one 
long  row,  for  example,  might  contain  all  the  parsnips,  carrots, 
and  salsify.     One  or  two  long  rows  containing  a  dozen  kinds  of 

451 


452 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


vegetables  are  usually  preferable  to  a  dozen  short  rows,  each 
with  one  kind  of  vegetable. 


6  ft, 


ft. 


4  ft 


4  ft 


21: 


4  ft. 


4  ft. 


4  ft, 


4  ft. 


6  ft 


8  ft 


8  ft. 


292. 


Tracy's  plan  for  a  kitchen-garden. 

It  is  well  to  place  the  permanent  vegetables,  as  rhubarb  and 
asparagus,  at  one  side,  where  they  will  not  interfere  with  the 


THE   GROWING   OF  THE    VEGETABLE  PLANTS 


453 


plowing  or  tilling.  The  annual  vegetables  should  be  grown  on 
different  parts  of  the  area  in  succeeding  years,  thus  practicing 
something  like  a  rotation  of  crops.  If  radish  or  cabbage  mag- 
gots or  club-root  become  thoroughly  established  in  the  planta- 
tion, omit  for  a  year  or  more  the  vegetables  on  which  they  live. 
A  suggestive  arrange-       ^    \.  .^=^    %^    .^    ^ 


ment  for  a  kitchen- 
garden  is  given  in  Fig. 
292.  In  Fig.  293  is  a 
plan  of  a  fenced  garden, 
in  which  gates  are  pro- 
vided at  the  ends  to 
allow  the  turning  of  a 
horse  and  cultivator 
(Webb  Donnell,  in 
American  Gardening). 
Figure  294  shows  a 
garden  with  continuous 
rows,  but  with  two 
breaks  running  across 
the  area,  dividing  the 
plantation  into  blocks. 
The  area  is  surrounded 
with  a  windbreak,  and 
the  frames  and  perma- 
nent plants  are  at  one 
side, 
is 


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11  ,  > 


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ill 


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il 


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w 


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V  .--'"^..^^"x  ^ 


293. 


A  garden  fence  arranged  to  allow  of  horse 
work. 


It  is  by  no  means 
necessary  that  the 
vegetable-garden  contain  only  kitchen-garden  products.  Flow- 
ers may  be  dropped  in  here  and  there  wherever  a  vacant  corner 
occurs  or  a  plant  dies.  Such  informal  and  mixed  gardens  usually 
have  a  personal  character  that  adds  greatly  to  their  interest, 
and,  therefore,  to  their  value.     One  is  generally  impressed  with 


454 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


this  informal  character  of  the  home-gardens  in  many  Euro- 
pean countries,  a  type  of  planting  that  arises  from  the  necessity 
of  making  the  most  of  every  inch  of  land.  It  was  the  writer's 
pleasure  to  look  over  the  fence  of  a  Bavarian  peasant's  garden 
and  to  see,  on  a  space  about  40  feet  by  100  feet  in  area,  a 


cOc 


q^^^^^Sbx^^^^  .'^^SSF^S?^^-^^  cs;ac^^i:ai3C:a^js:C5a 

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D  k.i 

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Sc/KL.£.y3^FT.  TO  IJNCHm 

294.    A  family  kitchen-garden. 


delightful  medley  of  onions,  pole  beans,  peonies,  celery,  balsams, 
gooseberries,  coleus,  cabbages,  sunflowers,  beets,  poppies,  cu- 
cumbers, morning-glories,  kohl-rabi,  verbenas,  bush  beans, 
pinks,  stocks,  currants,  wormwood,  parsley,  carrots,  kale,  peren- 
nial phlox,  nasturtiums,  feverfew,  lettuce,  lilies  ! 


Vegetables  for  six  (by  C.  E.  Hunn). 

A  home  vegetable-garden  for  a  family  of  six  would  require, 
exclusive  of  potatoes,  a  space  not  over  100  by  150  feet.  Be- 
ginning at  one  side  of  the  garden  and  running  the  rows  the 


THE   GROWING    OF   THE    VEGETABLE  PLANTS  455 

short  way  (having  each  row  100  feet  long)  sowings  may  be 
made,  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  in  condition  to  work,  of  the 
following : 

Fifty  feet  each  of  parsnips  and  salsify. 

One  hundred  feet  of  onions,  25  feet  of  which  may  be  potato  or  set 
onions,  the  remainder  black-seed  for  summer  and  fall  use. 

Fifty  feet  of  early  beets  ;  50  feet  of  lettuce,  with  which  radish  may 
be  sown  to  break  the  soil  and  be  harvested  before  the  lettuce  needs  the 
room. 

One  hundred  feet  of  early  cabbage,  the  plants  for  which  should 
be  from  a  frame  or  purchased.     Set  the  plants  18  inches  to  2  feet  apart. 

One  hundred  feet  of  early  cauliflower ;  culture  same  as  for  cabbage. 

Four  hundred  and  fifty  feet  of  peas,  sown  as  follows :  — 

100  feet  of  extra  early.  100  feet  of  extra  early,  sown  late. 

100  feet  of  intermediate.  50  feet  of  dwarf  varieties. 

100  feet  of  late. 

If  trellis  or  brush  is  not  to  be  used,  frequent  sowings  of  the  dwarfs 
will  maintain  a  supply. 

After  the  soil  has  become  warm  and  all  danger  of  frost  has  passed, 
the  tender  vegetables  be  planted  as  follows : 

Corn  in  five  rows  3  feet  apart,  three  rows  to  be  early  and  intermediate 
and  two  rows  late. 

One  hundred  feet  of  string  beans,  early  to  late  varieties. 

Vines  as  follows :  — 

10  hills  of  cucumbers,  6x6  feet.  6  hills  of  early  squash,  6x6  feet. 

20  hills  of  muskmelon,  6x6  feet.  10  hills  of  Hubbard,  6x6  feet. 

One  hundred  feet  of  okra. 

Twenty  eggplants.     One  hundred  feet  (25  plants)  tomatoes. 

Six  large  clumps  of  rhubarb. 

An  asparagus  bed  25  feet  long  and  3  feet  wide. 

Late  cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  celery  are  to  occupy  the  space  made 
vacant  by  removing  early  crops  of  early  and  intermediate  peas  and 
string  beans. 

A  border  on  one  side  or  end  will  hold  all  herbs,  such  as  parsley, 
thyme,  sage,  hyssop,  mints. 


456  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

The  classes  of  vegetables. 

Before  attempting  to  grow  particular  vegetables,  it  will  help 
the  beginner  to  an  understanding  of  the  subject  if  he  recognizes 
certain  cultural  groups  or  classes,  and  what  their  main  require- 
ments are. 

Root-crops  —  Beet,  carrot,  parsnip,  salsify. 

The  root-crops  are  cool-weather  plants;  that  is,  they  may  be 
sown  very  early,  even  before  light  frosts  disappear;  and  the 
winter  kinds  grow  very  late  in  the  fall,  or  may  be  left  in  the 
ground  till  most  other  crops  are  harvested.  They  are  not  often 
transplanted. 

Loose  and  deep  soil,  free  from  clods,  is  required  to  grow 
straight  and  well-developed  roots.  The  land  must  also  be 
perfectly  drained,  not  only  to  remove  superfluous  moisture, 
but  to  provide  a  deep  and  friable  soil.  Subsoiling  is  useful 
in  hard  lands.  A  large  admixture  of  sand  is  generally  desir- 
able, provided  the  soil  is  not  likely  to  overheat  in  sunny 
weather. 

To  keep  roots  fresh  in  the  cellar,  pack  them  in  barrels,  boxes, 
or  bins  of  sand  which  is  just  naturally  moist,  allowing  each  root 
to  come  wholly  or  partly  in  contact  with  the  sand.  The  best 
material  in  which  to  pack  them  is  sphagnum  moss,  the  same 
that  nurserymen  use  in  packing  trees  for  shipment,  and  which 
may  be  obtained  in  bogs  in  many  parts  of  the  country.  In 
either  sand  or  sphagnum,  the  roots  will  not  shrivel;  but  if  the 
cellar  is  warm,  they  may  start  to  grow.  Roots  can  also  be 
buried,  after  the  manner  of  potatoes.     Page  158. 

Alliaceous  group  —  Onion,  leek,  garlic. 

A  group  of  very  hardy  cool-weather  plants,  demanding  un- 
usually careful  preparation  of  the  surface  soil  to  receive  the 
seeds  and  to  set  the  young  plants  going.  They  withstand  frost 
and  cool  weather,  and  may  be  sown  very  early.     Seeds  are 


THE   GROWING   OF   THE    VEGETABLE  PLANTS  457 

sown  directly  where  the  plants  are  to  stand.  For  early  onions, 
however,  the  special  practice  has  recently  arisen  of  transplant- 
ing from  seedbeds. 

Brassicaceous  group  —  Cabbage,  kale,  cauliflower. 

These  are  cool-weather  crops,  all  of  them  withstanding  con- 
siderable frost.  The  cabbages  and  kales  are  often  started  in 
fall  in  the  middle  and  southern  latitudes,  and  are  harvested 
before  hot  weather  arrives. 

In  the  northern  states,  these  plants  will  all  do  best  when 
started  early  in  hotbed,  frame,  or  greenhouse,  —  from  the  last 
of  February  to  April  —  and  transplanted  to  the  open  ground 
May  first  to  June  first,  partly  because  their  season  of  growth 
may  be  long  and  partly  to  enable  them  to  escape  the  heat  of 
midsummer.  Still,  some  persons  are  successful  in  growing  late 
cabbage,  kale,  and  cauliflower,  by  sowing  the  seeds  in  hills  and  in 
the  open  ground  where  the  plants  are  to  mature.  It  is  best  to 
transplant  the  young  plantlets  twice,  first  from  the  seed-bed  to 
boxes,  or  frames,  about  the  time  the  second  set  of  true  leaves 
appears,  placing  the  plants  24  inches  apart  each  way,  and 
transplanting  again  to  the  open  ground  in  rows  4  to  5  feet 
apart,  with  plants  2  to  4  feet  apart  in  the  row.  If  the  plants 
are  started  under  cover,  they  should  be  hardened  off  by  ex- 
posure to  light  and  air  during 
the  warmer  hours  of  several 
days  preceding  the  final  trans- 
planting. 

The  most  serious  enemy  of 
cabbage-like  plants  is  the  root- 
maggot.  See  discussion  of  this 
insect  on  pp.  187,  201. 

The  cabbage-worm  (larva  of  295.  The  white  butterfly  that  lays  the 
,1  T„-^uxj.£i        u  •  eggs  for  the  cabbage-worm. 

the  white  butterfly  shown  m 

Fig.  295)   can   be   dispatched   with   pyrethrum  or    kerosene 


458  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

emulsion.     It   must  be  treated  very  early,  before  the  worm 
gets  far  into  the  head  (p.  200). 

The  club-root  or  stump-root  is  a  fungous  disease  for  which 
there  is  no  good  remedy.  Use  new  land  if  the  disease  is  present 
(p.208). 

Solanaceous  group  —  Tomato,  egg-plant,  red  pepper. 

These  are  warm-weather  plants,  very  impatient  of  frost. 
They  are  all  natives  of  southern  zones,  and  have  not  yet  become 
so  far  acclimatized  in  the  North  as  not  to  need  the  benefit  of 
our  longest  seasons. 

Plants  should  be  started  early,  under  glass.  They  should  be 
''pricked  off,"  when  the  second  leaves  appear,  3  or  4  inches 
apart,  into  flats  or  boxes.  These  boxes  should  be  kept  in  a 
coldframe,  to  which  an  abundance  of  light  and  air  is  admitted 
on  warm,  sunny  days,  in  order  to  harden  them  off.  After  all 
danger  of  frost  is  past,  and  the  garden  soil  is  well  warmed/ the 
plants  may  be  finally  transplanted. 

If  the  ground  is  too  rich,  these  plants  are  likely  to  grow  too 
late  in  the  northern  seasons. 

Cucurbitaceous  group  —  Cucumber,  melon,  squash,  pumpkin. 

All  the  members  of  this  group  are  very  tender  to  frost,  and  they 
must  not  be  planted  till  the  season  is  thoroughly  open  and 
settled.  The  plants  are  not  transplanted,  unless  they  are  trans- 
ferred from  boxes  or  pots. 

Seeds  must  be  planted  somewhat  shallow  from  early  spring 
to  midsummer.  For  the  earliest  cucumbers  and  melons,  seeds 
are  planted  in  frames.  That  is,  each  hill  is  inclosed  by  a  port- 
able box  frame  about  3  feet  square  and  usually  having  a 
movable  sash  cover.  The  cover  is  raised  or  removed  in  warm 
days,  and  the  frame  bodily  taken  away  when  all  danger  of  frost 
is  past.  In  field  culture,  seeds  are  planted  an  inch  deep,  four 
to  six  in  a  hill,  with  hills  4  by  6  feet  apart,  these  distances 


THE   GROWING    OF   THE    VEGETABLE  PLANTS  459 

being  varied  slightly,  according  to  location  and  variety.  Good 
cucumbers  are  sometimes  grown  in  hills  surrounding  a  barrel 
in  which  manure  is  placed  to  be  leached  out  by  successive  water- 
ings. 

The  omnipresent  enemies  of  all  the  cucurbitaceous  crops  are 
the  little  cucumber  beetle  and  the  large  black  '^  stink  bug." 
Ashes,  lime,  or  tobacco  dust  occasionally  seem  to  show  some 
efficiency  in  preventing  the  ravages  of  these  insects,  but  the  only 
reasonably  sure  immunity  is  in  the  use  of  covers  over  the  hills 
(Fig.  229)  and  in  hand-picking  (p.  202).  Covers  may  also 
be  made  by  stretching  mosquito  netting  over  arcs  of  barrel 
hoops  or  bent  wires.  If  by  some  such  means  the  plants  are 
kept  insect-free  till  they  outgrow  the  protection,  they  will 
usually  escape  serious  damage  from  insects  thereafter.  It  is 
well  to  plant  trap  or  decoy  hills  of  cucumbers,  squashes,  or 
melons  in  advance  of  the  regular  planting,  on  which  the  bugs 
may  be  harvested. 

Leguminous  crops  —  Peas  and  beans. 

Two  cultural  groups  are  included  in  the  legumes,  —  the  bean 
group  (including  all  field,  garden,  and  kidney  beans,  and  the 
cowpea)  comprising  warm- weather  plants;  the  pea  group 
(including  field  and  garden  pea,  the  Windsor  or  Broad  bean) 
comprising  cool-weather  plants.  The  former  are  quickly  sus- 
ceptible to  frost  and  should  be  planted  only  after  the  weather  is 
settled.  The  latter  are  among  the  earliest  vegetables  to  be 
planted.  The  leguminous  crops  are  not  transplanted,  the  seed 
being  placed  where  the  plants  are  to  grow. 

Salad  plants  and  pot-herbs  ("greens"). 

These  plants  are  all  grown  for  their  tender,  fresh,  succulent 
leaves,  and  therefore  every  reasonable  effort  should  be  made  to 
secure  quick  and  continuous  foliage  growth.  It  is  manifestly 
expedient  that  they  be  grown  in  warm,  mellow  ground,  well 
cultivated  and  copiously  watered.     Such  small  plants  as  cress, 


460  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

corn  salad,  and  parsley  may  be  grown  in  small  beds,  or  even  in 
boxes  or  pots;  but  in  a  garden  where  space  is  not  too  scant,  they 
may  be  more  conveniently  managed  in  rows,  like  peas  or  beets. 
Nearly  all  the  salad  plants  may  be  sown  in  the  spring,  and  from 
time  to  time  throughout  the  summer  for  succession.  The  group 
is  culturally  not  homogeneous,  inasmuch  as  some  of  the  plants 
need  special  treatment;  but  most  of  them  are  cool- weather 
subjects. 

Sweet-herbs. 

The  herb  garden  should  find  a  place  on  all  amateurs'  grounds. 
Sweet-herbs  may  sometimes  be  made  profitable  by  disposing  of 
the  surplus  to  the  green  grocer  and  the  druggist.  The  latter 
will  often  buy  all  that  the  housewife  wishes  to  dispose  of, 
as  the  general  supply  of  medicinal  herbs  is  grown  by  specialists, 
and  goes  into  the  hands  of  the  wholesaler  and  is  often  old  when 
received  by  the  local  dealer. 

The  seedsmen's  catalogues  mention  upwards  of  forty  different 
herbs,  medicinal  and  culinary.  The  majority  of  them  are  peren- 
nial, and  will  grow  for  many  years  if  well  taken  care  of.  How- 
ever, it  is  better  to  resow  them  every  three  or  four  years.  Beds 
4  feet  square  of  each  of  the  herbs  will  supply  an  ordinary 
family. 

The  perennial  sweet-herbs  may  be  propagated  by  division, 
although  they  are  usually  grown  from  seeds.  The  second  year 
—  and  sometimes  even  the  first  year  —  the  plants  are  strong 
enough  for  cutting.  The  common  perennial  sweet-herbs  are: 
Sage,  lavender,  peppermint,  spearmint,  hyssop,  thyme,  mar- 
joram, balm,  catnip,  rosemary,  horehound,  fennel,  lovage, 
winter  savory,  tansy,  wormwood,  costmary. 

The  commoner  annual  species  (or  those  that  are  treated 
as  annuals)  are:  Anise,  sweet  basil,  summer  savory,  coriander, 
pennyroyal,  caraway  (biennial),  clary  (biennial),  dill  (biennial), 
sweet  marjoram  (bienniaD. 


XXIX.   Cherry  currant. 


ASPARAGUS  461 

The  culture  of  the  leading  vegetables. 

Having  now  obtained  a  view  of  the  layout  of  the  vegetable- 
garden  and  a  good  conception  of  the  leading  cultural  groups, 
we  may  proceed  with  a  discussion  of  the  different  kinds  of 
vegetables  themselves.  Good  experience  is  better  than  book 
advice ;  but  the  person  who  consults  a  book  is  the  one  who 
lacks  experience.  Any  printed  directions  are  necessarily  im- 
perfect, and  they  may  not  be  adaptable  to  the  particular  con- 
ditions under  which  the  amateur  works  ;  but  they  ought  to  set 
him  in  the  right  direction  so  that  he  may  more  easily  find  his 
way.  Seedsmen's  catalogues  often  contain  much  useful  and 
reliable  advice  of  this  kind. 

Asparagus.  —  The  best  of  all  early  spring  vegetables;  a  hardy  her- 
baceous perennial,  grown  for  the  soft  edible  shoots  that  spring  from 
the  crown. 

The  culture  of  asparagus  has  been  simplified  in  the  past  few  years, 
and  at  present  the  knowledge  required  successfully  to  plant  and  grow 
a  good  supply  need  not  be  that  of  a  professional.  The  old  method  of 
excavating  to  the  depth  of  3  feet  or  more,  throwing  in  from  4  to  6  inches 
of  broken  stone  or  bricks  for  drainage,  then  filling  to  within  16  to  18 
inches  of  the  surface  with  well-rotted  manure,  with  6  inches  of  soil 
upon  which  to  set  the  roots,  has  given  place  to  the  simple  practice 
of  plowing  or  digging  a  trench  from  14  to  16  inches  deep,  spreading 
well-rotted  manure  in  the  bottom  to  the  depth  of  3  or  4  inches ;  when 
well  trodden  down  covering  the  manure  with  3  or  4  inches  of  good  gar- 
den soil,  then  setting  the  plants,  with  the  roots  well  spread  out,  cover- 
ing carefully  with  soil  to  the  level  of  the  garden,  and  firming  the  soil 
with  the  feet.  This  will  leave  the  crowns  of  the  plants  from  4  to 
5  inches  below  the  surface. 

In  stubborn,  heavy  soil  the  best  method  to  pursue  in  making  a 
permanent  bed  is  to  throw  out  all  the  dirt  from  the  trench  and  replace 
with  good,  fibrous  loam. 

In  setting,  1-year-old  plants  will  prove  more  satisfactory  than 
older  ones,  being  less  liable  to  suffer  from  injury  to  the  root  system  than 
those  that  have  made  a  larger  growth.    Two  years  after  setting  the 


462 


MANUAL   OF  GARDENING 


crop  may  be  cut  somewhat,  but  not  sooner  if  a  lasting  bed  is  desired^ 
as  the  effort  to  replace  the  stalks  has  a  tendency  to  weaken  the  plant 

unless  the  roots  are  well  estab- 
lished. The  cutting  should 
cease  in  June  or  early  July,  or 
the  roots  may  be  much  weak- 
ened. In  cutting,  care  should 
be  taken  to  insert  the  knife 
vertically,  so  that  adjoining 
crowns  will  not  be  injured  (Fig. 
296). 

The  yearly  treatment  of  an 
asparagus  bed  consists  of  clean- 
ing off  tops  and  weeds  in  the 
fall  and  adding  a  dressing  of 
well-rotted  manure  to  the 
depth  of  3  or  4  inches,  this  ma- 
nure to  be  lightly  forked  into  the 
bed  the  following  spring;  or  the  tops  may  be  allowed  to  stand  for 
winter  protection  and  the  mulch  left  off.  A  top-dressing  of  nitrate  of 
soda,  at  the  rate  of  200  pounds  per  acre,  is  often  beneficial  as  a  spring 
stimulant,  particularly  in  the  case  of  an  old  bed.  Good  results  will  also 
follow  an  application  of  bone  meal  or  superphosphate  at  the  rate  of 
some  300  to  500  pounds  per  acre.  The  practice  of  sowing  salt  on  an  as- 
paragus bed  is  almost  universal;  yet  beds  that  have  never  received  a 
pound  of  salt  are  found  to  be  as  productive  as  those  having  received  an 
annual  dressing.  Nevertheless,  a  salt  dressing  is  recommended.  Two 
rows  of  asparagus  25  feet  long  and  3  feet  apart  should  supply  a  large 
family  with  an  abundance  throughout  the  season,  and  if  well  taken  care 
of,  will  last  a  number  of  years. 

Conover  Colossal  is  the  variety  most  generally  grown,  and  is  per- 
haps the  most  satisfactory  sort.  Palmetto,  a  variety  originating  at 
the  South,  is  also  very  popular.    . 


296.  Good  {A)  and  poor  {B)  modes  of 
inserting  the  knife  to  cut  asparagus. 
Some  careful  growers  pull  or  break  the 
shoots  rather  than  cut  them. 


Artichoke.  —  The  artichoke  of  literature  is  a  tall,  coarse  perennial 
of  the  thistle  tribe,  producing  edible  flower-heads.  Cardoon  is  a  re- 
lated plant. 


ARTICHOKE  —BEAN  463 

The  fleshy  scales  of  the  head  and  the  soft  "bottom"  of  the  head 
are  the  parts  used.  The  young  suckers  or  shoots  may  also  be  tied 
together  and  blanched,  using  them  like  asparagus  or  Swiss  chard.  But 
few  of  these  plants  would  be  needed  for  a  family,  as  they  produce  a 
number  of  flower-heads  to  a  plant  and  a  quantity  of  suckers.  The 
plants  should  be  set  from  2  to  3  feet  apart  in  the  row,  the  rows  being 
3  feet  apart.  This  vegetable  is  not  quite  hardy  in  the  North,  but  a 
covering  of  leaves  or  barnyard  litter  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  will  protect  it 
well.  The  plant  is  perennial,  but  the  best  yield  comes  from  young  plants. 
If  the  heads  are  allowed  to  ripen,  they  reduce  the  vitality  of  the  plant. 

Artichokes  have  never  become  so  popular  in  this  country  as  to  have 
produced  a  long  list  of  varieties.  Large  Green  Globe  is  most  commonly 
offered  by  seedsmen.  Edible  heads  should  be  secured  the  second  year 
from  seed.  Seedlings  are  likely  to  vary  greatly,  and  if  one  is  fond  of 
artichokes,  he  would  do  better  to  propagate  by  suckers  from  the  best 
plants. 

These  plants  make  no  mean  decorative  subjects,  either  massed  or 
in  a  mixed  border,  and  from  the  rarity  of  their  culture  are  always 
objects  of  interest. 

Artichoke,  Jerusalem,  is  a  wholly  different  plant  from  the  above, 
although  it  is  commonly  known  as  "artichoke"  in  this  country.  It 
is  a  species  of  sunflower  that  produces  potato-like  tubers.  These  tubers 
may  be  used  in  lieu  of  potatoes.  They  are  very  palatable  to  hogs; 
and  when  the  plant  becomes  a  weed,  —  as  it  often  does,  —  it  may  be 
exterminated  by  turning  the  hogs  into  the  field.  Hardy,  and  will  grow 
anywhere. 

Bean.  —  Every  garden  grows  beans  of  one  kind  or  another.  Under 
this  general  name,  many  kinds  of  plants  are  cultivated.  They  are  all 
tender,  and  the  seeds,  therefore,  should  not  be  planted  until  the 
weather  is  thoroughly  settled;  and  the  soil  should  be  warm  and  loose. 
They  are  all  annuals  in  northern  countries,  or  treated  as  such. 

The  bean  plants  may  be  classified  in  various  ways.  In  respect  to 
stature,  they  may  be  thrown  into  three  general  categories;  viz.  the 
pole  or  climbing  beans,  the  bush  beans,  and  the  strict-growing  or  up- 
right beans  (as  the  Broad  or  Windsor  bean). 


464  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

In  respect  to  their  uses,  beans  again  may  be  divided  into  three  cate- 
gories; viz.  those  used  as  string  or  snap  beans,  the  entire  pod  being 
eaten ;  those  that  are  used  as  shell  beans,  the  full-size  but  immature 
beans  being  shelled  from  the  pod  and  cooked;  dry  beans,  or  those 
eaten  in  their  dry  or  winter  condition.  The  same  variety  of  bean 
may  be  used  for  all  of  these  three  purposes  at  different  stages  of  its  de- 
velopment ;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact,  there  are  varieties  better  for  one 
purpose  than  the  other. 

Again,  beans  may  be  classified  in  respect  to  their  species.  Those 
species  that  are  best  known  are  as  follows:  (1)  Common  bean,  or 
Phaseolus  vulgaris,  of  which  there  are  both  tall  and  bush  forms.  All 
the  common  snap  and  string  beans  belong  here,  as  also  the  Speckled 
Cranberry  types  of  pole  beans,  and  the  common  field  beans.  (2)  The 
Lima  beans,  or  Phaseolus  lunatus.  The  larger  part  of  these  are  pole 
beans,  but  lately  dwarf  or  bush  varieties  have  appeared.  (3)  The 
Scarlet  Runner,  Phaseolus  multiflorus,  of  which  the  Scarlet  Runner  and 
White  Dutch  Runner  are  famihar  examples.  The  Scarlet  Runner  is 
usually  grown  as  an  ornamental  vine,  and  it  is  perennial  in  warm  coun- 
tries, but  the  seeds  are  edible  as  shelled  beans.  The  White  Dutch 
Runner  is  of  tener  cultivated  for  food.  (4)  The  Yard-Long,  or  Asparagus 
bean,  Dolichos  sesquipedalis,  which  produces  long  and"  weak  vines  and 
very  long,  slender  pods.  The  green  pods  are  eaten,  and  also  the  shelled 
beans.  The  French  Yard-Long  is  the  only  variety  of  this  type  that  is 
commonly  known  in  this  country.  This  type  of  bean  is  popular  in  the 
Orient.  (5)  The  Broad  beans,  of  which  the  Windsor  is  the  common 
type.  These  are  much  grown  in  the  Old  World  for  stock  feed,  and 
they  are  sometimes  used  for  human  food.-  They  grow  to  one  strict, 
central,  stiff  stalk,  to  a  height  of  2  to  4  or  5  feet,  and  they  are 
very  unlike  other  kinds  of  beans  in  appearance.  In  this  country,  they 
are  very  little  grown  on  account  of  our  hot  and  dry  summers.  In  Can- 
ada they  are  somewhat  raised,  and  are  sometimes  used  in  the  making 
of  silage.  (6)  The  co^vpea,  which  is  really  a  bean  (species  of  Vigna), 
much  grown  in  the  South  for  hay  and  green-manuring,  is  also  a  very 
good  table  vegetable  and  one  that  is  destined  to  increase  in  popularity 
for  domestic  use. 

The  culture  of  the  bean,  while  of  the  easiest,  often  proves  a  failure 
as  far  as  the  first  crop  is  concerned,  from  planting  the  seed  before  the 


BEAN  465 

ground  has  become  warm  and  dry.  No  vegetable  seed  will  decay- 
quicker  than  beans,  and  the  delay  caused  by  waiting  for  the  soil  to 
become  warm  and  free  from  excessive  moisture  will  be  more  than 
made  up  by  the  rapidity  of  growth  when  finally  they  are  planted. 
Beans  will  grow  on  most  any  land,  but  the  best  results  may  be  se- 
cured by  having  the  soil  well  enriched  and  in  good  physical 
condition. 

From  the  5th  to  the  10th  of  May  in  the  latitude  of  central  New  York, 
it  will  be  safe  to  plant  beans  for  an  early  crop.  The  beans  may  be 
dropped  2  inches  deep  in  shallow  drills,  the  seeds  to  lie  3  inches  apart. 
Cover  to  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  if  the  ground  be  dry,  firm  it  with 
the  foot  or  the  back  of  the  hoe.  For  the  bush  varieties,  allow  2  feet 
between  the  drill-rows,  but  for  the  dwarf  Limas  2^  feet  is  better. 
Pole  Limas  are  usually  planted  in  hills  2  to  3  feet  apart  in  the  rows. 
Dwarf  Limas  may  be  sown  thinly  in  drills. 

A  large  number  of  the  varieties  of  both  the  green-podded  and  the 
wax-podded  beans  are  used  almost  exclusively  as  snap  beans,  to  be 
eaten  with  the  pod  while  tender.  The  various  strains  of  the  Black 
Wax  are  the  most  popular  string  beans.  The  pole  or  running  beans 
are  used  either  green  or  dried,  and  the  Limas,  both  tall  and  dwarf,  are 
well  known  for  their  superior  flavor  either  as  shelled  or  dry  beans. 
The  old-fashioned  Cranberry  or  Horticultural  Lima  type  (a  pole  form 
of  Phaseolus  vulgaris)  is  probably  the  best  shell  bean,  but  the  trouble 
of  poling  makes  it  unpopular.  Dwarf  Limas  are  much  more  desirable 
for  small  gardens  than  the  pole  varieties,  as  they  may  be  planted  much 
closer,  the  bother  of  procuring  poles  or  twine  is  avoided,  and  the 
garden  will  have  a  more  sightly  appearance.  Both  the  dwarf  Limas 
and  pole  Limas  require  a  longer  season  in  which  to  mature  than  the 
bush  beans,  and  only  one  planting  is  usually  made. 

The  ordinary  bush  beans  may  be  planted  at  intervals  of  two  weeks 
from  the  first  planting  until  the  10th  of  August.  Each  planting  may 
be  made  on  ground  previously  occupied  by  some  early-maturing  crop. 
Thus,  the  first  to  third  plantings  may  be  on  ground  from  which  has 
been  harvested  a  crop  of  spinach,  early  radish,  or  lettuce ;  after  that, 
on  ground  where  early  peas  have  been  grown;  and  the  later  sowings 
where  beets  or  early  potatoes  have  grown.  String  beans  for  canning 
are  usually  taken  from  the  last  crop. 
2h 


466 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


One  quart  of  seed  will  plant  100  feet  of  drill  of  the  bush  beans;  ol 
1  quart  of  Limas  will  plant  100  hills. 

Limas  are  the  richest  of  beans,  but  they  often  fail  to  mature  in  the 
northern  states.  The  land  should  not  be  very  strong  in  nitrogen  (or 
stable  manure),  else  the  plants  will  run  too  much  to  vine  and  be  too 
late.  Choose  a  fertile  sandy  or  gravelly  soil  with  warm  exposure, 
use  some  soluble  commercial  fertilizer  to  start  them  off,  and  give  them 
the  best  of  culture.  Aim  to  have  the  pods  set  before  the  droughts  of 
midsummer  come.  Good  trellises  for  beans  are  made  by  wool  twine 
stretched  between  two  horizontal  wires,  one  of  which  is  drawn  a  foot 
above  the  ground  and  the  other  6  or  7  feet  high. 

Bean  plants  are  not  troubled  by  insects  to  any  extent,  but  they  are 
sometimes  attacked  by  blight.  When  this  occurs,  do  not  plant  the 
same  ground  to  beans  again  for  a  year  or  two. 


Beet.  —  This  vegetable   is  grown   for  its  thick  root,  and  for  its 

herbage  (used  as  "  greens '0  5  ^nd 
ornamental-leaved  varieties  are 
sometimes  planted  in  flower-gardens. 
Being  one  of  the  hardiest  of  spring 
vegetables,  the  seed  may  be  sown  as 
early  in  the  spring  as  the  ground  can 
be  worked.  A  light,  sandy  soil  is  the 
best  on  which  to  grow  beets  to  per- 
fection, but  any  well-tilled  garden 
land  will  raise  satisfactory  crops.  On 
heavy  ground  the  turnip  beet  gives 
the  best  results,  as  the  growth  is 
nearly  all  at  or  above  the  surface. 
The  long  varieties,  having  tapering 
roots  running  deep  into  the  soil,  are 
liable  to  be  misshapen  unless  the 
physical  condition  of  the  soil  is  such 
that  the  roots  meet  with  little  ob- 
struction. A  succession  of  sowings 
should  be  made,  at  intervals  of  two 
297.  Bastian  turnip  beet.  to  three  weeks.  Until  late  summer,  as 


BEET  —  BRUSSELS   SPROUTS  467 

the  beets  are  much  more  desirable  in  their  young  stage  than  when 
they  have  become  old  and  woody.  The  mangel-wurzel  and  the  sugar- 
beet  are  usually  grown  as  a  field  crop,  and  will  not  enter  into  the 
calculations  of  the  home  garden. 

In  order  to  hasten  the  season  of  the  extra-early  crop  of  beets,  the 
seeds  may  be  sown  in  boxes  or  in  the  soil  of  a  hotbed  in  February  or 
March,  transplanting  the  small  plants  to  the  open  ground  at  the  time 
the  first  sowing  of  seed  is  made.  As  the  flat  or  turnip-rooted  varieties 
grow  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the  seed  may  be  sown  thickly,  and 
as  the  more  advanced  roots  are  large  enough  to  use  they  may  be 
pulled,  leaving  room  for  the  later  ones  to  develop,  thus  growing  a 
large  quantity  in  a  small  area  and  having  a  long  season  of  small  beets 
from  one  sowing. 

For  winter  use  the  late  July-sown  seed  will  give  the  best  roots,  grow- 
ing through  the  cool  months  of  the  fall  to  a  medium  size  and  remain- 
ing firm  without  being  tough  or  stringy.  These  may  be  dug  after 
light  frosts  and  before  any  severe  cold  weather,  and  stored  in  barrels 
or  boxes  in  the  cellar,  using  enough  dry  dirt  to  fill  spaces  between  the 
roots  and  cover  them  to  the  depth  of  6  inches.  These  roots,  thus 
packed  in  a  cool  cellar,  will  be  fit  to  use  through  the  entire  winter 
months.  When  it  can  be  had,  florists'  or  sphagnum  moss  is  an  excel- 
lent medium  in  which  to  pack  roots  for  winter. 

The  early  round  or  turnip  varieties  (Fig.  297)  are  best  for  early  and 
summer  use.  The  long  blood  beets  may  be  used  for  storing,  but  these 
require  a  longer  season  of  growth. 

Broccoli  is  almost  identical  with  the  cauliflower,  except  that  it 
usually  requires  a  longer  season  and  matures  in  the  fall.  It  is  grown 
more  generally  in  Europe  than  in  this  country.  The  special  merit 
of  broccoli  is  its  adaptability  for  late  summer  planting  and  its  rapid 
growth  in  the  late  season.  It  is  said  that  a  large  proportion  of  broccoli 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  pickles.  The  culture  is  the  same  as  for 
cauliflower,  —  deep,  moist  soil  well  enriched,  cool  weather,  and  the 
destruction  of  the  cabbage  worm. 

Brussels  sprouts.  —  The  plant  is  grown  for  the  buttons  or  sprouts 
(miniature  cabbage  heads)  that  grow  thickly  along  the  stem  (Fig.  298). 


i68 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


It  should  be  more  generally  known,  as  it  is  one  of  the  choicest  of 

the  cabbage  family,  and  may  be  had 
at  its  best  after  the  season  for  cauli- 
flower has  passed.  It  is  the  better  for 
being  touched  by  the  fall  frosts.  The 
buttons  should  be  cut  off  rather  than 
broken.  The  very  small  hard  "  sprouts  " 
or  buttons  are  the  best.  The  culture 
is  essentially  the  same  as  for  late  cab- 
bage or  broccoli.  One  ounce  will  sow 
100  feet  of  drill,  or  make  upward  of 
2000  plants.  Set  plants  in  field  2  to  3 
l^\  --f=^^^^^  ^^®^  apart,  or    dwarf    varieties    closer. 

\^      '"  ""  "'  They  require  the  entire  season  in  which 

298.   Brussels  sprouts.  to  grow. 


Cabbage.  —  The  cabbage  is  now  so  extensively  grown  as  a  field  crop, 
from  which  the  market  is  supplied,  and  the  plants  require  so  much 
room  that  many  home-gardeners  incline  to  give  up  its  culture;  but 
the  early  varieties,  at  least,  should  be  grown  at  home. 

For  an  early  crop  in  the  North,  the  plants  must  be  started  either  in 
February  or  early  March,  or  the  previous  September  and  wintered  over 
in  coldframes.  This  latter  method  was  once  a  common  practice  by 
gardeners  near  large  cities,  but  the  building  of  greenhouses  to  replace 
the  many  hotbeds  of  the  market-gardener  has  changed  the  practice  in 
many  localities,  and  now  most  of  the  early  cabbages  in  the  North  are 
grown  from  seed  sown  in  January,  February,  or  March.  The  plants  are 
hardened  off  in  March  and  early  April  and  planted  out  as  early  as  pos- 
sible. The  private  grower,  or  one  with  a  small  garden,  may  often 
procure  his  early  plants  from  the  market-gardener  much  cheaper 
than  he  can  grow  them,  as  usually  only  a  limited  number  of  early 
cabbage  plants  are  wanted;  but  for  the  midseason  and  main  crop,  the 
seed  may  be  sown  in  May  or  June  in  a  seed-bed,  setting  the  plants  in 
July. 

The  seed-bed  should  be  made  mellow  and  rich.  A  good  border  will 
do.  The  seed  is  sown  preferably  in  rows,  thus  allowing  thinning  of  the 
plants  and  the  pulling  of  any  weeds  that  germinate.     The  young  plants 


CABBAGE  469 

will  well  repay  attention  to  watering  and  thinning.  The  rows  should 
be  3  or  4  inches  apart.  When  the  plants  are  large  enough  to  trans- 
plant, they  may  be  planted  where  early  vegetables  have  been  grown 
Set  the  plants  from  18  to  24  inches  apart  in  the  row,  the  rows  being 
3  feet  apart  for  ths  medium-growing  kinds.  One  ounce  of  seed  will 
furnish  about  2000  plants. 

All  cabbages  require  deep  and  rich  soil,  and  one  that  holds  moisture 
well.  Regular  cultivation  should  be  given  so  that  moisture  may  be 
saved  and  the  growth  be  continuous. 

For  early  planting,  the  number  of  varieties  is  limited  to  three  or 
-four.  For  an  intermediate  crop  the  list  is  more  extended,  and  the  late 
varieties  are  very  numerous.  The  early  list  is  headed  by  the  Jersey 
Wakefield,  a  variety  that  heads  very  quickly,  and,  although  not  one 
of  the  solid  kinds,  is  generally  grown.  The  Early  York  and  Winnig- 
stadt  are  good  varieties  to  follow  it.  The  latter  especially  is  solid  and 
of  very  good  quality.  For  the  midseason,  the  Succession  and  All  Season 
are  of  the  best,  and  for  the  winter  supply  the  Drumhead,  Danish  Ball, 
and  Flat  Dutch  types  are  leaders.  One  of  the  best  of  the  cabbages 
for  table  use  is  seldom  seen  in  the  garden  —  the  Savoy  cabbage.  It  is 
a  type  with  netted  leaves,  making  a  large,  low-growing  head,  the  center 
of  which  is  very  solid  and  of  excellent  flavor,  especially  late  in  the  fall, 
when  the  heads  have  had  a  slight  touch  of  frost.  Savoy  should  be 
grown  in  every  private  garden. 

The  best  remedy  for  the  cabbage  worm  is  to  kill  the  first  brood  on 
the  very  young  plants  with  Paris  green.  After  the  plants  begin  to 
head,  pyrethrum,  kerosene  emulsion,  or  salt  water  may  be  used.  On 
a  small  area,  hand-picking  may  be  recommended  (p.  200). 

The  maggot  is  the  most  serious  cabbage  pest.  After  studying  the 
seventy  odd  remedies  proposed,  Slingerland  concludes  that  six  are  effi- 
cient and  practicable:  growing  the  young  plants  in  closely  covered 
frames;  tarred  paper  cards  placed  snugly  about  the  base  of  the  plants 
to  keep  the  fly  away;  rubbing  the  eggs  from  the  base  of  the  plant; 
hand-picking  of  the  maggots;  treating  the  plants  with  emulsion  of 
carbolic  acid;  treating  them  with  carbon  bisulfide.  The  insecticidal 
materials  are  injected  or  poured  into  the  soil  about  the  base  of  the 
plant  (p*p.  187,  201). 

The  club-root,  which  causes  the  roots  to  become  greatly  thickened 


470 


MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 


and  distorted,  is  difficult  to  manage  if  cabbages  or  allied  plants  ar« 
grown  continuously  on  land  in  which  diseased  plants  have  been  raised. 
Changing  the  location  of  the  cabbage  or  cauliflower  patch  is  the  best 
procedure.  If  very  different  crops,  as  corn,  potatoes,  peas,  tomatoes, 
are  grown  on  the  land,  the  disease  will  be  starved  out  in  two  or 
three  years  (p.  208). 

There  are  many  ways  of  storing  cabbages  for  winter  and  spring  use, 
none  of  which  are  uniformly  successful.  The  general  subject  is  dis- 
cussed on  p.  158.  On  this  point  T. 
Greiner  writes  as  follows :  *'  I  have 
heretofore  piled  a  lot  of  cabbages  cut 
from  the  stump  in  a  conical  heap  in 
the  field,  and  covered  them  with  clusters 
of  the  outer  leaves  cut  off  with  a  piece 
of  the  stump.  The  leaves  are  carefully 
placed  over  the  heap  in  shingle  fashion, 
so  as  to  shed  water.  Cabbages  thus 
piled  and  covered  may  be  left  out  until 
real  winter  weather  sets  in.  But  I  find 
that  slugs  and  earthworms  frequently 
infest  the  cabbages  thus  stored,  and  do 
a  good  deal  of  damage.  It  might  be 
well  to  place  a  solid  floor  of  lime  or  salt 
upon  the  ground,  and  then  pack  the 
cabbages  upon  this.  If  to  be  left  out  after  severe  freezing  has  set  in, 
one  should  put  additional  covering,  such  as  straw,  corn-stalks  or  marsh 
hay,  over  the  whole  heap."  Mr.  Burpee's  little  book,  *  Cabbage  and 
Cauliflower  for  Profit,'  written  by  J.  M.  Lupton,  a  prominent  cabbage- 
grower,  suggests  the  following  plan  for  early  winter  sales :  "  Take  the 
cabbages  up  with  the  roots  on,  and  store  in  well-ventilated  cellars, 
where  they  will  keep  till  mid-winter.  Or  stack  them  in  some  sheltered 
position  about  the  barn,  placing  one  above  the  other  in  tiers,  with  the 
roots  inside,  and  covering  deeply  with  seaweed ;  or  if  this  cannot  be 
obtained,  something  hke  cornstalks  may  be  used  to  keep  them  from 
the  weather  as  much  as  possible  (Fig.  299).  When  thus  stored,  they 
may  be  obtained  any  time  during  the  winter  when  prices  are 
favorable. 


299.   A  method  of  storing  cab- 
bages. 


CARROT  —  VA  ULIFL  0  WER 


471 


Carrot.  —  While  essentially  a  farm  crop  in  this  country,  the  carrot 
is  nevertheless  a  most  acceptable  garden  vege- 
table. It  is  hardy  and  easily  grown.  The  extra- 
early  varieties  may  be  forced  in  a  hotbed,  or 
seed  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  fit 
to  work  in  the  spring.  The  stump-rooted,  or 
half-long  varieties  (Fig.  300),  are  sown  for  the 
general  garden  crop. 

Well-enriched,  mellow  loam,  deeply  dug  or 
plowed,  is  best  suited  to  the  requirements  of 
carrots.  The  seed  for  the  main  crop  may  be 
sown  as  late  as  July  1.  Sow  thickly,  thinning 
to  3  to  4  inches  in  the  row.  The  rows,  if  in  a 
garden  that  is  hand- worked,  may  be  12  inches 
apart.  If  the  cultivation  is  performed  with  a 
horse,  the  rows  should  be  from  2  to  3  feet  apart. 
One  ounce  will  sow  100  feet  of  drill. 

Cauliflower.  —  This  is  the  choicest  of  all 
vegetables  of  the  cabbage  group,  and  its  culture 
is  much  the  most  difficult.  While  the  special 
requirements  are  few,  they  must  be  fully  met  if 
good  results  are  to  be  expected. 

The  general  culture  of  cauliflower  is  much  like  that  of  cabbage, 
except  that  the  cauliflower,  being  more  tender,  should  be  more  thor- 
oughly hardened  off  before  setting  out,  the  heads  must  be  protected 
from  hot  suns,  the  plants  must  never  suffer  for  moisture,  and  the 
greatest  care  must  be  taken  to  secure  only  highly  bred  seeds. 

It  is  essential  that  the  plants  be  set  out  as  early  as  possible,  as  the 
warm  weather  of  June  causes  them  to  make  imperfect  heads  unless  the 
soil  is  filled  with  moisture.  No  garden  crop  will  so  well  repay  the  cost 
and  time  of  thorough  irrigation,  either  by  running  the  water  between 
the  rows  or  applying  it  directly  to  the  plants.  When  it  is  impossible 
to  furnish  water  and  there  is  danger  of  losing  the  soil  moisture,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  mulch  heavily  with  straw  or  some  other  substance.  This 
mulch,  if  put  on  just  after  a  heavy  rain,  will  hold  the  moisture  for  a 
long  time.     Cauliflower  prospers  best  in  a  cool  climate. 


300.   A  half-long 
carrot. 


472 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


When  the  heads  begin  to  form,  the  outside  leaves  may  be  brought 
together  and  tied  above  the  head,  excluding  the  direct  sunshine  and 

keeping  the  head  white  and 
tender.  Fig.  301  shows  a 
good  head. 

No  vegetable  will  respond 
more  quickly  to  good  culture 
and  well-manured  soil  than 
the  cauliflower,  and  none  will 
prove  such  an  utter  failure 
when  neglected.  It  is  im- 
perative that  care  be  taken  to 
301.  Cauliflower  head  with  leaves  trimmed  destroy  all  the  cabbage  WOrms 
°^-  before  the  leaves  are  tied  in, 

as  after  that  it  will  be  impossible  to  see  or  reach  them.  From  1000  to 
1500  plants  may  be  grown  from  1  ounce  of  seed.  Good  cauliflower  seed 
is  very  expensive. 

For  winter  crop,  seeds  may  be  started  in  June  or  July,  as  for  late 
cabbage. 

Erfurt,  Snowball,  and  Paris  are  popular  early  varieties.     Nonpareil 
and  Algiers  are  good  late  kinds. 

Celeriac.  —  A  form  of  the  celery  plant  in 
which  the  tuberous  root  is  the  edible  part 
(Fig.  302).  The  tuber  has  the  celery  flavor 
in  a  pronounced  degree,  and  is  used  for 
flavoring  soups  and  for  celery  salad.  It  may 
be  served  raw,  sliced  in  vinegar  and  oil,  or 
boiled. 

The  culture  is  the  same  as  given  for  celery, 
except  that  no  earthing  or  blanching  is  re- 
quired. About  an  equal  number  of  plants  are 
obtained  from  the  same  weight  of  seed  as  from 
celery  seed.  Celeriac  is  extensively  used 
abroad,  but,  unfortunately,  little  known  in 
America. 

Celery.  —  Although  celery  has  now  become  a  staple  vegetable  with  all 


302.    Celeriac  or  turnip- 
rooted  celerv. 


CELER  Y  473 

classes  of  people,  the  home-gardener  is  likely  not  to  attempt  its  culture; 
yet  it  is  not  difficult  to  raise  in  small  quantities  in  most  any  good 
garden  land.  While  the  commercial  celery  is  largely  grown  on  re- 
claimed swamp  lands,  such  areas  are  not  at  all  essential  to  its  cultiva- 
tion. 

The  self-blanching  varieties  have  simplified  the  culture  of  celery  so 
that  the  amateur,  as  well  as  the  expert,  may  have  a  good  supply  at 
least  six  months  of  the  year.  The  so-called  new  culture,  which  con- 
sists of  setting  the  plants  close  together  and  causing  them  to  shade  each 
other,  can  be  recommended  for  the  garden  when  a  supply  of  well-rotted 
manure  is  to  had,  and  when  any  amount  of  water  is  available.  This 
method  is  as  follows:  Fork  or  spade  into  the  soil  a  large  quantity  of 
manure  to  the  depth  of  10  to  12  inches;  pulverize  the  soil  until 
the  ground  for  the  depth  of  4  to  6  inches  is  in  very  fine  condition. 
Then  set  the  plants  in  rows  10  inches  apart  and  the  plants  but  5  or  6 
inches  apart  in  the  rows.  It  will  be  seen  that  plants  set  as  close  as 
this  will  soon  fill  the  soil  with  a  mass  of  roots  and  must  have  large 
amoi^nts  of  plant-food,  as  well  as  a  large  quantity  of  water;  and  the 
making  of  such  a  bed  can  be  recommended  only  to  those  who  can 
supply  these  needs. 

The  common  practice  in  home  gardens  is  to  plow  or  dig  a  shallow 
trench,  setting  the  plants  in  the  bottom  and  hoeing  in  the  soil  as  the 
plants  grow.  The  distance  apart  of  the  rows  and  plants  will  depend 
on  the  varieties.  For  the  dwarf  varieties,  such  as  White  Plume,  Golden 
Self-blanching,  and  others  of  this  type,  the  rows  may  be  as  close  as 
3  feet  and  the  plants  6  inches  in  the  rows.  For  the  large-growing 
varieties,  as  Kalamazoo,  Giant  Pascal,  and,  in  fact,  most  of  the  late 
varieties,  the  rows  may  be  4J  to  5  feet  apart  and  the  plants  7  or  8 
inches  in  the  row. 

The  seed  for  an  early  crop  should  be  sown  in  February  or  early  in 
March  in  shallow  boxes,  which  may  be  placed  in  a  hotbed  or  sunny 
window,  or  sown  directly  in  the  soil  of  a  hotbed.  Cover  the  seeds 
thinly  and  press  the  soil  firmly  over  them.  When  the  seedling  plants 
are  about  1  inch  high,  they  should  be  transplanted  to  other  boxes 
or  hotbeds,  setting  the  plants  1  inch  apart  in  rows  3  inches  apart. 
At  this  transplanting,  as  with  the  following  ones,  the  tall  leaves  should 
be  cut  or  pinched  off,  leaving  only  the  upright  growth,  as  with  the  ut- 


474  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

most  care  it  is  almost  impossible  to  prevent  the  outside  leafstalks  from 
wilting  down  and  dying.  The  roots  should  also  be  trimmed  back  at 
each  transplanting  in  order  to  increase  the  feeding  roots.  The  plants 
should  be  set  as  deep  as  possible,  care  being  taken,  however,  not  to 
allow  the  heart  of  the  plant  to  be  covered  up.  The  varieties  usually- 
grown  for  an  early  crop  are  the  so-called  self -blanching  varieties.  They 
may  be  made  fit  for  the  table  with  much  less  labor  than  the  late  crop , 
the  shade  required  to  blanch  the  stalks  being  much  less.  When  only  a 
few  short  rows  are  grown  in  a  private  garden,  screens  of  lath  may  be 
made  by  driving  stakes  on  each  side  of  the  row  and  tacking  lath  on, 
leaving  spaces  of  an  inch  or  more  for  the  light  to  enter;  or  each  head 
may  be  wrapped  in  paper,  or  a  tile  drain  pipe  may  be  set  over  the  plant. 
In  fact,  any  material  that  will  exclude  the  hght  will  render  the  stalks 
white  and  brittle. 

The  seed  for  the  main  or  fall  crop  should  be  sown  in  April  or  early 
May  in  a  seed-bed  prepared  by  forking  short  well-rotted  manure  into  a 
fine  soil,  sowing  the  seed  thinly  in  rows  8  or  10  inches  apart,  covering 
the  seed  lightly  and  firming  over  the  seed  with  the  feet,  hoe,  or  back  of  a 
spade.  This  seed-bed  should  be  kept  moist  at  all  times  until  the  seed 
germinates,  either  by  close  attention  to  watering  or  by  a  lath  screen. 
The  use  of  a  piece  of  cloth  laid  directly  on  the  soil,  and  the  bed  wet 
through  the  cloth,  is  often  recommended,  and  if  the  cloth  is  always  wet 
and  taken  off  the  bed  as  soon  as  the  seed  sprouts,  it  may  be  used.  After 
the  young  plants  have  grown  to  the  height  of  1  or  2  inches  they 
must  be  thinned  out,  leaving  the  plants  so  that  they  do  not  touch  each 
other,  and  transplanting  those  thinned  —  if  wanted  —  to  other  ground 
prepared  in  the  same  manner  as  the  seed-bed.  All  these  plants  may  be 
sheared  or  cut  back  to  induce  stockiness. 

An  ounce  of  seed  will  furnish  about  three  thousand  plants. 

If  in  a  private  garden,  the  ground  on  which  the  fall  crop  is  usually 
set  will  likely  be  that  from  which  a  crop  of  some  early  vegetable  has 
been  taken.  This  land  should  be  again  well  enriched  with  fine,  well- 
rotted  manure,  to  which  maybe  added  a  liberal  quantity  of  wood  ashes. 
If  the  manure  or  ashes  is  not  easily  obtained,  a  small  amount  may 
be  used  by  plowing  or  digging  out  a  furrow  8  or  12  inches  deep, 
scattering  the  manure  and  ashes  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench  and  filling 
it  up  almost  level  with  the  surface.     The  plants  should  be  set  about 


•,"  i.-^VV^^fJsmx',.*'  • 

m. 

•-^ 

CELER Y —  CHA RD 


475 


the  middle  of  July,  preferably  just  before  a  rain. 
The  plant  bed  should  have  a  thorough  soaking 
shortly  before  the  plants  are  lifted,  and  each 
plant  be  trimmed,  both  top  and  root,  before  set- 
ting. The  plants  should  be  set  from  5  to  6  inches 
apart  in  the  rows  and  the  earth  well  firmed 
around  each  one. 

The  after-cultivation  consists  in  thorough 
tillage  until  the  time  of  "handling"  or  earthing 
up  the  plants.  This  process  of  handling  is 
accomplished  by  drawing  up  the  earth  with  one 

hand      while 


303. 


Storing  celery  in 
a  trench  in  the 
field.    (Seep.  515.) 


304.   A  celery  pit. 


holding     the 
plant  with  the 

other,  packing  the  soil  well  around 
the  stalks.  This  process  may  be 
continued  until  only  the  leaves  are 
to  be  seen.  For  the  private  grower, 
it  is  much  easier  to  blanch  the  celery 
with    boards    or  paper,   or   if   the 

celery  is  not  wanted  until  winter,  the  plants  may  be  dug  up,  packed 

closely  in  boxes,  covering  the  roots  with  soil, 

and  placed  in  a  dark,  cool  cellar,  where  the 

stalks  will  blanch  themselves.      In  this  way 

celery  may  be  stored  in  boxes  in  the  house 

cellar.     Put  earth  in  the  bottom  of  a  deep 

box,  and  plant  the  celery  in  it. 

Celery  is  sometimes  stored  in  trenches  in  the 

open  (Fig.  303),  the  roots  being  transplanted 

to  such  places  in  late  fall.     The  plants  are  set 

close  together  and  the  trenches  are  covered 

with  boards.     A  wider  trench  or  pit  may  be 

made  (Fig.  304)  and  covered  with  a  shed  roof. 


Chard,  or  Swiss  chard,  is  a  development  of 
the  beet  species  characterized  by  large  suc- 
culent leafstalks    instead   of  enlarged   roots 


305.   Swiss  chard. 


476  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

(Fig.  305).  The  leaves  are  very  tender  and  make  "greens"  much  like 
young  beets.  They  are  cultivated  exactly  like  beets.  Only  one  variety 
is  offered  by  most  seedsmen  in  this  country,  though  in  France  and 
Germany  several  varieties  are  grown. 

Chicory  is  grown  for  two  purposes,  —  for  the  roots  and  for  the 
herbage.  "  Barbe  de  capucin  "  is  a  salad  made  from  young  shoots  of 
chicory. 

The  Magdeburg  chicory  is  the  variety  usually  spoken  of,  it  being 
the  one  most  extensively  grown.  The  roots  of  this,  after  being 
ground  and  roasted,  are  used  either  as  a  substitute  or  an  adulterant 
for  coffee. 

The  Witloof,  a  form  of  chicory,  is  used  as  a  salad,  or  boiled  and 
served  in  the  same  manner  as  cauliflower.  The  plants  should  be 
thinned  to  6  inches.  In  the  latter  part  of  summer  they  should  be 
banked  up  like  celery,  and  the  leaves  used  after  becoming  white  and 
tender.  This  and  the  common  wild  chicory  are  often  dug  in  the  fall, 
the  leaves  cut  off,  the  roots  packed  in  sand  in  a  cellar  and  watered  until 
a  new  growth  of  leaves  starts.  These  leaves  grow  rapidly  and  are  very 
tender,  making  a  fine  salad  vegetable.  One  packet  of  seed  of  the  Wit- 
loof will  furnish  plants  enough  for  a  large  family. 

Chervil.  —  The  chervil  is  grown  in  two  forms,  —  for  the  leaves,  and 
for  the  tuberous  roots. 

The  curled  chervil  is  a  good  addition  to  the  list  of  garnishing 
and  seasoning  vegetables.  Sow  seeds  and  cultivate  the  same  as 
parsley. 

The  tuberous  chervil  resembles  a  short  carrot  or  parnsip.  It  is 
much  esteemed  in  France  and  Germany.  The  tubers  have  somewhat  the 
flavor  of  a  sweet  potato,  perhaps  a  little  sweeter.  They  are  perfectly 
hardy,  and,  like  the  parsnip,  the  better  for  frosts.  The  seed  may  be 
sown  in  September  or  October,  as  it  does  not  keep  well;  or  as  soon 
as  the  ground  is  fit  to  work  in  the  spring,  it  being  slow  to  germinate 
after  the  weather  becomes  hot  and  dry.  One  packet  of  seed  will  give 
all  the  plants  necessary  for  a  family. 

Collards.  —  This  is  a  name  given  to  a  kind  of  kale,  used  when  young 
as  greens ;  also  to  young  cabbages  used  in  the  same  way. 


COLLARDS  —  CIVES  —  CORN  477 

The  seed  of  any  early  cabbage  may  be  sown  thickly  in  rows  18  inches 
apart,  from  early  spring  to  late  fall.  The  plants  are  cut  off  when  6 
or  8  inches  high  and  boiled  as  are  other  greens. 

The  kale,  or  Georgia  collards,  is  grown  in  the  South,  where  cabbages 
fail  to  head.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  2  to  6  feet,  furnishing  a 
large  quantity  of  leaves.  The  young  leaves  and  tufts  that  arise  as  the 
old  leaves  are  pulled  off  make  excellent  greens. 

Gives.  —  A  small  perennial  of  the  onion  family,  used  for  flavoring. 

It  is  propagated  by  division  of  the  root.  It  may  be  planted  in  a  per- 
manent place  in  the  border,  and,  being  completely  hardy,  will  remain  for 
years.  The  leaves  are  the  parts  used,  as  the  roots  are  very  rank  in 
flavor.    The  leaves  may  be  cut  frequently,  as  they  readily  grow  again. 

Corn  salad.  —  This  is  one  of  the  earliest  spring  salad  vegetables, 
coming  into  condition  with  spinach,  and  needing  the  same  culture. 

Sown  in  the  fall,  and  covered  with  straw  or  hay  when  cold  weather 
sets  in,  it  will  start  into  rapid  growth  when  the  covering  is  removed  in 
March  or  April.  Or  the  seed  may  be  sown  in  early  spring,  and  plants 
will  be  fit  to  use  in  six  or  eight  weeks.  One  packet  of  seed  will  suffice 
for  a  small  family. 

Corn,  sweet  or  sugar.  —  This  is  the  characteristic  American  table 
vegetable,  and  one  that  every  home-gardener  expects  to  grow.  Too 
often,  however,  only  one  planting  of  one  kind  is  made.  The  ears  come 
to  edible  maturity  almost  simultaneously,  and  a  short  season  is  the 
result. 

The  first  planting  of  sweet  corn  should  be  made  from  May  1  to  10, 
planting  early,  intermediate,  and  late  varieties  at  the  same  time,  then 
at  intervals  of  two  weeks  until  the  middle  of  July,  when  the  late  vari- 
eties should  be  planted,  thus  having  a  succession  from  the  first  crop 
until  October. 

The  soil  for  corn  should  be  fertile  and  "  quick."  The  coarser  manure 
left  from  the  preparation  of  the  ground  for  small  crops  may  be  used 
to  good  advantage.  Corn  for  the  garden  is  better  planted  in  drills, 
the  drills  3  feet  apart,  dropping  the  seed  from  10  to  12  inches  apart  in 
the  drills.     One  quart  of  seed  will  plant  200  hills. 


478  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

For  extra  early,  Marblehead,  Adams,  Vermont,  Minnesota,  and 
Early  Corey  are  favorites.  A  most  excellent  extra  early  yellow 
sweet  corn,  with  kernels  looking  like  small  field  corn,  is  Golden  Bantam; 
the  ears  are  small  and  would  probably  not  attract  the  market  buyer, 
but  for  home  use  the  variety  is  unexcelled  (Plate  XXIV).  For  later 
crop,  Crosby,  Hickox,  Shoe  Peg,  and  Stowell  Evergreen  are  now 
popular. 

Cress.  —  Two  very  unlike  species  of  plants  are  grown  under  the 
name  of  cress,  —  the  upland-cress  and  the  water-cress.  There  are  still 
other  species,  but  not  much  known  in  this  country. 

The  upland  cress,  or  the  true  pepper  grass,  may  be  grown  on  any 
garden  soil.  Sow  early  in  the  spring.  It  makes  a  rapid  growth  and 
can  be  cut  in  from  four  to  five  weeks.  Succession  of  sowings  must  be 
made,  as  it  runs  quickly  to  seed.  The  curled  variety  is  the  one  usually 
grown,  as  the  leaves  may  be  used  for  garnishing  as  well  as  for  salads. 
One  packet  of  seed  will  be  sufficient  for  each  sowing.  Any  good  soil 
will  do.  Sow  thickly  in  drills  12  to  18  inches  apart.  In  summer 
it  runs  to  seed  quickly,  so  that  it  is  usually  grown  in  spring  and  fall. 

The  water-cress  is  more  exacting  in  its  culture,  and  can  be  success- 
fully grown  only  in  moist  places,  such  as  edges  of  shallow  slow-run- 
ning creeks,  open  drains,  or  beds  excavated  near  such  streams.  A 
few  plants  for  private  use  may  be  grown  in  a  frame,  provided  a  reten- 
tive soil  is  used  and  attention  given  to  watering  the  bed  often.  Water- 
cress may  be  propagated  from  pieces  of  the  stem,  used  as  cuttings. 
If  one  is  fond  of  water-cress,  it  is  well  to  colonize  it  in  some  clean  creek 
or  pool.  It  will  take  care  of  itself  year  by  year.  Seeds  may  also  be 
used  for  propagating  it. 

Cucumber.  —  The  custom  of  putting  down  cucumber  pickles  in  the 
home  kitchen  is  probably  passing  out;  but  both  the  pickling  and  the 
slicing  cucumbers,  especially  the  latter,  are  still  an  essential  part  of  a 
good  home  garden.  A  stale  or  wilted  cucumber  is  a  very  poor  article 
of  food. 

For  early  use,  the  cucumber  is  usually  started  in  a  hotbed  or  cold- 
frame  by  sowing  the  seed  on  pieces  of  sod  4  to  6  inches  square, 
turned  grass  side  down.     Three  or  four  seeds  are  placed  on  or  pushed 


CUCUMBER  —  DANDELION  479 

into  each  piece  of  sod  and  covered  with  1  to  2  inches  of  fine  soil. 
The  soil  should  be  well  watered  and  the  glass  or  cloth  placed  over  the 
frame.  The  roots  will  run  through  the  sod.  When  the  plants  are 
large  enough  to  set  out,  a  flat  trowel  or  a  shingle  may  be  slipped  under 
the  sod  and  the  plants  moved  to  the  hill  without  check.  In  place  of 
sod,  old  quart  berry-boxes  are  good ;  after  setting  in  the  hill  the  roots 
may  force  their  way  through  the  cracks  in  the  baskets.  The  baskets 
also  decay  rapidly.  Flower-pots  may  be  used.  These  plants  from 
the  frames  may  be  set  out  when  danger  of  frost  is  over,  usually  by  the 
10th  of  May,  and  should  make  a  very  rapid  growth,  yielding  good-sized 
fruits  in  two  months.  The  hills  should  be 
made  rich  by  forking  in  a  quantity  of  well- 
rotted  manure,  and  given  a  slight  elevation 
above  the  garden  —  not  high  enough  to  allow 
the  wind  to  dry  the  soil,  but  slightly  raised  so 
that  water  will  not  stand  around  the  roots. 

The  main  crop  is  grown  from  seed  planted 
directly  in  the  open,  and  the  plants  are  grown 
under  level  culture. 

One  ounce  of  seed  will  plant  fifty  hills  of 
cucumbers.      The   hills  may  be  4  to  5  feet  306.  West  Indian  gherkin 
apart  each  way.  {CMcwnis  Anguria). 

The  White  Spine  is  the  leading  general-purpose  variety.  For  very 
early  or  pickling  sorts,  the  Chicago,  Russian,  and  other  pickhngs  are 
good. 

The  striped  beetle  is  an  inveterate  pest  on  cucumbers  and  squashes 
(see  page  201). 

The  name  gherkin  is  applied  to  small  pickling  cucumbers.  The 
West  India  gherkin  is  a  wholly  distinct  species,  but  is  grown  like 
cucumbers.     (Fig.  306.) 

Dandelion.  —  Under  domestication  the  dandelion  has  been  devel- 
oped until  quite  unrecognizable  to  the  casual  observer.  The  plants 
attain  a  large  size  and  the  leaves  are  much  more  tender. 

Sow  in  spring  in  well-manured  soil,  either  in  drills  or  in  hills  1 
foot  apart.  A  cutting  of  leaves  may  be  had  in  September  or  October, 
and  some  of  the  stools  may  stand  until  spring.     The  delicacy  of  the 


480 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


leaves  may  be  improved  by  blanching  them,  either  by  the  use  of  boards 
or  earth.  One  trade  packet  of  seed  will  supply  a  sufficient  number'  for 
a  family.  The  whole  plant  is  destroyed  when  the  crop  of  leaves  is 
taken. 

The  seed  may  be  selected  from  the  best  field-grown  plants,  but  it 
is  better  to  buy  the  French  seed  of  the  seedsmen. 


Egg-plant.  —  The  egg-plant  or  guinea  squash  has  never  become 
a  popular  home-garden  product  in  the  North.  In  the  South  it  is  better 
known. 

Unless  one  has  a  greenhouse  or  a  very  warm  hotbed,  the  growing 
of  egg-plants  in  the  North  should  be  left  to  the  professional  gardener, 
as  the  young  plants  are  very  tender,  and  should  be  grown  without  a 

check.  The  seed  should  be  sown  in 
the  hotbed  or  the  greenhouse  about 
April  10,  keeping  a  temperature  of  65° 
to  70°.  When  the  seedlings  have  made 
three  rough  leaves,  they  may  be  pricked „ 
out  into  shallow  boxes,  or,  still  better, 
into  3-inch  pots.  The  pots  or  boxes 
should  be  plunged  to  the  rim  in  soil  in 
a  hotbed  or  coldframe  so  situated  that 
protection  may  be  given  on  chilly 
nights.  The  10th  of  June  is  early 
enough  to  plant  them  out  in  central 
New  York. 

The  soil  in  which  egg-plants  are  to  grow  cannot  well  be  made  too 
"quick,"  as  they  have  only  a  short  season  in  which  to  develop 
their  fruits.  The  plants  are  usually  set  3  feet  apart  each  way.  A 
dozen  plants  are  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  a  large  family,  as  each 
plant  should  yield  from  two  to  six  large  fruits.  The  fruits  are  fit 
to  eat  at  all  stages  of  growth,  from  those  the  size  of  a  large  egg  to 
their  largest  development.  One  ounce  of  seed  will  furnish  600  to  800 
plants. 

The  New  York  Improved  Purple  is  the  standard  variety.  Black 
Pekin  (Fig.  307)  is  good.  For  early,  or  for  a  short-season  climate, 
the  Early  Dwarf  Purple  is  excellent. 


307.    Black  Pekin  egg-plant. 


ENDIVE —  GARLIC  —  HORSERADISH 


481 


Endive.  —  One  of  the  best  fall  salad  vegetables,  being  far  superior  to 

lettuce  at  that  time  and  as  easily  grown. 
For  fall  use,  the  seed  may  be  sown 

from  June  to  August,  and  as  the  plants 

become  fit  to  eat  about  the  same  time 

from  sowing  as  lettuce  does,  a  succession 

may  be  had  until  cold  weather.     The 

plants   will   need   protection    from   the 

severe  fall  frosts,  and  this  may  be  given 

by  carefully  lifting  the  plants  and  trans- 
planting to  a  frame,  where  sash  or  cloth 
may  be  used  to  cover 
them  in  freezing  weather. 
The  leaves,  which  con- 
stitute practically  the  whole  plant,  are  blanched  before 
being  used,  either  by  tying  together  with  some  soft 
material  (Fig.  308)  or  by  standing  boards  on  each  side 
of  the  row,  allowing  the  top  of  the  boards  to  meet  over 
the  center  of  the  row.  Tie  the  leaves  only  when  they 
are  dry. 

The  rows  should  be  1§  or  2  feet  apart,  the  plants 
1  foot  apart  in  the  rows.  One  ounce  of  seed  will  sow 
150  feet  of  drill. 


308.   Endive  tied  up. 


Garlic.  —  An  onion-like  plant,  the  bulbs  of  which  are 
used  for  flavoring. 

Garlic  is  little  known  in  this  country  except  amongst 
those  of  foreign  birth.  It  is  multiplied  the  same  as 
multiplier  onions  —  the  bulb  is  broken  apart  and  each 
bulbule  or  "  clove  "  makes  a  new  compound  bulb  in  a 
few  weeks.  Hardy;  plant  in  early  spring,  or  in  the 
South  in  the  fall.     Plant  2  to  3  inches  apart  in  the  row. 


309.  A  good 
horseradish 
root. 

2l 


Horseradish.  —  Widely  used  as  an  appetizer,  and 
now  grown  commercially.  As  a  kitchen-garden  vege- 
table, this  is  usually  planted  in  some  out-of-the-way 
spot  and  a  piece  of  the  root  dug  as  often  as  needed. 


482  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

the  fragments  of  roots  being  left  in  the  soil  to  grow  for  further 
use.  This  method  results  in  having  nothing  but  tough,  stringy  roots, 
very  unlike  the  product  of  a  properly  planted  and  well-cared-for 
bed.  A  good  horseradish  root  should  be  straight  and  shapely 
(Fig.  309). 

The  best  horseradish  is  secured  from  sets  planted  in  the  spring  at 
the  time  of  setting  early  cabbage,  and  dug  as  late  the  same  fall  as  the 
weather  will  permit.  It  becomes,  therefore,  an  annual  crop.  The 
roots  for  planting  are  small  pieces,  from  4  to  6  inches  long,  ob- 
tained when  trimming  the  roots  dug  in  the  fall.  These  pieces  may 
be  packed  in  sand  and  stored  until  wanted  the  following  spring. 

In  planting,  the  roots  should  be  set  with  the  upper  end  3  inches 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  using  a  dibber  or  sharp-pointed  stick 
in  making  the  holes.  The  crop  may  be  planted  between  rows  of  early- 
sown  beets,  lettuce,  or  other  crop,  and  given  full  possession  of  the 
ground  when  these  crops  are  harvested.  When  the  ground  is  inclined 
to  be  stiff  or  the  subsoil  is  near  the  surface,  the  roots  may  be  set  in  a 
slanting  position.  In  fact,  many  gardeners  practice  this  method  of 
planting,  thinking  that  the  roots  make  a  better  growth  and  are  more 
uniform  in  size. 

Kale.  —  Under  this  name,  a  great  variety  of  cabbage-tribe  plants  is 
grown,  some  of  them  reaching  a  height  of  several  feet.  Usually,  how- 
ever, the  name  is  applied  to  a  low-growing,  spreading  plant,  exten- 
sively used  for  winter  and  spring  greens. 

The  culture  given  to  late  cabbage  is  suitable.  At  the  approach  of 
severe  freezing  weather  a  slight  protection  is  given  in  the  North. 
The  leaves  remain  green  through  the  winter  and  may  be  gathered 
from  under  the  snow  at  a  time  when  material  for  greens  is  scarce. 
Some  of  the  kales  are  very  ornamental  because  of  their  blue  and 
purple  curled  foliage.  The  Scotch  Curled  is  the  most  popular  variety. 
Let  the  plants  stand  18  to  30  inches  apart.  Young  cabbage  plants 
are  sometimes  used  as  kale.  Collards  and  borecole  are  kinds  of  kale. 
Sea-kale  is  a  wholly  different  vegetable  (which  see). 

Kales  are  extensively  grown  at  Norfolk,  Va.,  and  southward,  and 
shipped  North  in  winter,  the  plants  being  started  in  late  summer  or 
in  fall. 


KOHLRABI  —  LEEK  — LETTUCE  483 

Kohlrabi  is  little  known  in  the  United  States.  It  looks  like  a  leafy- 
turnip  growing  above  ground. 

If  used  when  small  (2  to  3  inches  in  diameter),  and  not  allowed  to 
become  hard  and  tough,  it  is  of  superior  quality.  It  should  be  more 
generally  grown.  The  culture  is  very  simple.  A  succession  of  sowing? 
should  be  made  from  early  spring  until  the  middle  of  summer,  in  drills 
18  inches  to  2  feet  apart,  thinning  the  young  plants  to  6  or  8  inches  in 
the  rows.  It  matures  as  quickly  as  turnips.  One  ounce  of  seed  to 
100  feet  of  drill. 

Leek.  —  The  leek  is  little  grown  in  this  country  except  by  persons 
of  foreign  extraction.  The  plant  is  one  of  the  onion  family,  and  is 
used  mostly  as  flavoring  for  soups.  Well-grown  leeks  have  a  very 
agreeable  and  not  very  strong  onion  flavor. 

Leek  is  of  the  easiest  culture,  and  is  usually  grown  as  a  second  crop, 
to  follow  beets,  early  peas,  and  other  early  stuff.  The  seed  should  be 
sown  in  a  seed-bed  in  April  or  early  May  and  the  seedlings  planted  out 
in  the  garden  in  July,  in  rows  2  feet  apart,  the  plants  being  6  inches 
apart  in  the  rows.  The  plants  should  be  set  deep  if  the  neck  or  lower 
part  of  the  leaves  is  to  be  used  in  a  blanched  condition.  The  soil  may 
be  drawn  towards  the  plants  in  hoeing,  to  further  the  blanching.  Being 
very  hardy,  the  plants  may  be  dug  in  late  fall,  and  stored  the  same  as 
celery,  in  trenches  or  in  a  cool  root-cellar.  One  ounce  of  seed  to  100 
feet  of  drill. 

Lettuce  is  the  most  extensively  grown  salad  vegetable.  It  is  now  in 
demand,  and  is  procurable,  every  month  in  the  year.  The  winter  and 
early  spring  crops  are  grown  in  forcing-houses  and  coldframes,  but  a 
supply  from  the  garden  may  be  had  from  April  to  November,  by  the 
use  of  a  cheap  frame  in  which  to  grow  the  first  and  last  crops,  relying 
on  a  succession  of  sowings  for  the  intermediate  supply. 

Seed  for  the  first  crop  may  be  sown  in  a  coldframe  in  March,  grow- 
ing the  crop  thick  and  having  many  plants  which  are  small  and  tender; 
or,  by  thinning  out  to  the  distance  of  3  inches  and  allowing  the 
plants  to  make  a  larger  growth,  the  plants  pulled  up  may  be  set  in  the 
open  ground  for  the  next  crop. 

Sowings  should  be  made  in  the  garden  from  April  to  October,  at 


484  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

short  intervals.  A  moist  location  should  be  chosen  for  the  July  and 
August  sowings.  The  early  and  late  sowings  should  be  of  some  loose- 
growing  variety,  as  they  are  in  edible  condition  sooner  than  the  cabbage 
or  heading  varieties. 

The  cabbage  varieties  are  far  superior  to  the  loose-growing  kinds 
for  salads.  To  be  grown  to  perfection,  they  should  have  very  rich  soil, 
frequent  cultivation,  and  an  occasional  stimulant,  such  as  liquid  ma- 
nure or  nitrate  of  soda. 

The  cos  lettuce  is  an  upright-growing  type  much  esteemed  in 
Europe,  but  less  grown  here.  The  leaves  of  the  full-grown  plants  are 
tied  together,  thus  blanching  the  center,  making  it  a  desirable  salad  or 
garnishing  variety.     It  thrives  best  in  summer. 

One  ounce  of  seed  will  grow  3000  plants  or  sow  100  feet  of  drill.  In 
the  garden,  plants  may  stand  6  inches  apart  in  the  rows,  and  the  rows 
may  be  as  close  together  as  the  system  of  tillage  will  allow. 

Mushroom.  —  Sooner  or  later,  the  novice  wants  to  grow  mushrooms. 
While  it  is  easy  to  describe  the  conditions  under  which  they  may  be 
grown,  it  does  not  follow  that  a  crop  may  be  predicted  with  any  cer- 
tainty. 

Latterly,  careful  studies  have  been  made  of  the  growing  of  mush- 
rooms from  spores  and  of  the  principles  involved  in  the  making  of 
spawn,  with  the  hope  of  reducing  the  whole  subject  of  mushroom 
growing  to  a  rational  basis.  A  good  idea  of  this  work  may  be  had  by 
reading  Duggar's  contribution  on  the  subject  in  Bulletin  85  of  the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
In  this  place,  however,  we  may  confine  ourselves  to  the  customary 
horticultural  practice. 

The  following  paragraphs  are  from  "  Farmers'  Bulletin,"  No.  53 
(by  William  Falconer),  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  (March, 
1897):— 

Mushrooms  are  a  winter  crop,  coming  in  from  September  till  April 
or  May  —  that  is,  the  work  of  preparing  the  manure  begins  in  Septem- 
ber and  ends  in  February,  and  the  packing  of  the  crop  begins  in  Octo- 
ber or  November  and  ends  in  May.  Under  extraordinary  conditions 
the  season  may  begin  earlier  and  last  longer,  and,  in  fact,  it  may  con- 
tinue all  summer. 


MUSHROOM  485 

Mushrooms  can  be  grown  almost  anywhere  out  of  doors,  and  also 
indoors  where  there  is  a  dry  bottom  in  which  to  set  the  beds,  where  a 
uniform  and  moderate  temperature  can  be  maintained,  and  where  the 
beds  can  be  protected  from  wet  overhead,  and  from  winds,  drought, 
and  direct  sunshine.  Among  the  most  desirable  places  in  which  to 
grow  mushrooms  are  barns,  cellars,  closed  tunnels,  sheds,  pits,  green- 
houses, and  regular  mushroom  houses.  Total  darkness  is  not  impera- 
tive, for  mushrooms  grow  well  in  open  light  if  shaded  from  sunshine. 
The  temperature  and  moisture  are  more  apt  to  be  equable  in  dark  places 
than  in  open,  light  ones,  and  it  is  largely  for  this  reason  that  mushroom 
houses  are  kept  dark. 

The  best  fertilizer  for  mushrooms,  so  far  as  the  writer's  experience 
goes,  is  fresh  horse  manure.  Get  together  a  lot  of  this  material  (short 
and  strawy)  that  has  been  well  trampled  and  wetted  in  the  stable. 
Throw  it  into  a  heap,  wet  it  well  if  it  is  at  all  dry,  and  let  it  heat. 
When  it  begins  to  steam,  turn  it  over,  shake  it  well  so  as  to  mix  thor- 
oughly and  evenly,  and  then  tramp  it  down  solid.  After  this  let  it  stand 
till  it  again  gets  quite  warm ;  then  turn,  shake,  trample  as  before,  and  add 
water  freely  if  it  is  getting  dry.  Repeat  this  turning,  moistening,  and 
trampling  as  often  as  it  is  needful  to  keep  the  manure  from  *'  burning." 
If  it  gets  intensely  hot,  spread  it  out  to  cool,  after  which  again  throw  it 
together.  After  being  turned  in  this  way  several  times,  and  the  heat 
in  it  is  not  apt  to  rise  above  130°  F.,  it  should  be  ready  to  make  up  in 
the  beds.  By  adding  to  the  manure  at  the  second  or  third  turning  one- 
fourth  or  one-fifth  of  its  bulk  of  loam,  the  tendency  to  intense  heating  is 
lessened  and  its  usefulness  not  at  all  impaired.  Some  growers  prefer 
short  manure  exclusively,  that  is,  the  horse  droppings,  while  others 
like  a  good  deal  of  straw  mixed  in  with  this.  The  writer's  experience, 
however,  is  that,  if  properly  prepared,  it  matters  little  which  is  used. 

Ordinarily  the  beds  are  only  8  to  10  inches  deep;  that  is,  they  are 
faced  with  10-inch-wide  hemlock  boards,  and  are  only  the  depth  of  this 
board.  In  such  beds  put  a  layer  of  fresh,  moist,  hot  manure,  and 
trample  it  down  firm  until  it  constitutes  half  the  depth  of  the  bed; 
then  fill  up  with  the  prepared  manure,  which  should  be  rather  cool 
(100°  to  115°  F.)  when  used,  and  pack  all  firmly.  If  desired,  the  beds 
can  be  made  up  entirely  of  the  prepared  manure.  Shelf  beds  are 
usually  9  inches  deep;  that  is,  the  shelf  is  bottomed  with  1-inch  boards 


486  MANUAL    OF    GARDENING 

and  faced  with  10-inch  wide  boards.  This  allows  about  8  inches  foi 
manure,  and  1  inch  rising  to  2  inches  of  loam  on  top.  In  filling  the 
shelf  beds  the  bottom  half  may  be  of  fresh,  moist  or  wettish,  hot 
manure,  packed  down  solid,  and  the  top  half  of  rather  cool  prepared 
manure,  or  it  may  be  made  up  of  all  prepared  manure.  As  the  shelf 
beds  cannot  be  trodden  and  cannot  be  beaten  very  firm  with  the  back 
of  the  fork,  a  brick  is  used  in  addition  to  the  fork. 

The  beds  should  be  spawned  after  the  heat  in  them  has  fallen  below 
100°  F.  The  writer  considers  90°  F.  about  the  best  temperature  for 
spawning.  If  the  beds  have  been  covered  with  hay,  straw,  litter,  or 
mats,  these  should  be  removed.  Break  each  brick  into  twelve  or  fif- 
teen pieces.  The  rows  should  be,  say,  1  foot  apart,  the  first  one  being 
6  inches  from  the  edge,  and  the  pieces  should  be  9  inches  apart  in  the 
row.  Commencing  with  the  first  row,  lift  up  each  piece,  raise  2  to  3 
inches  of  the  manure  with  the  hand,  and  into  this  hole  place  the  piece, 
covering  over  tightly  with  the  manure.  When  the  entire  bed  is 
spawned,  pack  the  surface  all  over.  It  is  well  to  cover  the  beds  again 
with  straw,  hay,  or  mats,  to  keep  the  surface  equally  moist.  The  flake 
spawn  is  planted  in  the  same  way  as  the  brick  spawn,  only  not  quite 
so  deep. 

At  the  end  of  eight  or  nine  days  the  mulching  should  be  removed 
and  the  beds  covered  with  a  layer  of  good  loam  2  inches  thick,  so  that 
the  mushrooms  can  come  up  in  and  through  it.  This  gives  them  a  firm 
hold,  and  to  a  large  extent  improves  their  quality  and  texture.  Any 
fair  loam  will  do.  That  from  an  ordinary  field,  wayside,  or  garden  is 
generally  used,  and  it  answers  admirably.  There  exists  an  idea  that 
garden  soil  surfeited  with  old  manure  is  unfit  for  mushroom  beds 
because  it  is  apt  to  produce  spurious  fungi.  This,  however,  is  not  the 
case.  In  fact,  it  is  the  earth  most  commonly  used.  For  molding  the 
beds  the  loam  should  be  rather  fine,  free,  and  mellow,  so  that  it  can  be 
easily  and  evenly  spread  and  compacted  firmly  into  the  manure. 

If  an  even  atmospheric  temperature  of  from  55°  to  60°  F.  can  be 
maintained,  and  the  house  or  cellar  containing  the  mushroom  beds  is 
kept  close  and  free  from  drafts,  the  beds  may  be  left  uncovered,  and 
should  be  watered  if  they  become  dry.  But  no  matter  where  the  beds 
are  situated,  it  is  well  to  lay  some  loose  hay  or  straw  or  some  old  mat- 
ting or  carpet  over  them  to  keep  them  moist.    The  covering,  however, 


MUSTARD  —  M  USE  MEL  ON  487 

should  be  removed  just  as  soon  as  the  young  mushrooms  begin  to  appear 
above  ground.  If  the  atmosphere  is  dry,  the  pathways  and  walls 
should  be  sprinkled  with  water.  The  mulching  should  also  be  sprinkled, 
but  not  enough  to  cause  the  water  to  soak  into  the  bed.  However,  if 
the  bed  should  get  dr}^,  do  not  hesitate  to  water  it. 

Mustard.  —  Almost  all  the  mustards  are  good  for  greens,  though 
white  mustard  is  usually  best.     Chinese  mustard  is  also  valuable. 

Seed  should  be  sown  in  drills,  3  to  Si  feet  apart,  and  covered  with  a 
half  inch  of  goil.  The  ease  with  which  they  may  be  grown,  and  the 
abundance  of  herbage  which  they  yield,  mark  their  special  utility. 
Sow  very  early  for  spring  greens,  and  in  late  summer  or  early  Septem- 
ber for  fall  greens. 

Muskmelon.  —  The  most  delicious  of  all  garden  vegetables  eaten  from 
the  hand,  and  of  simple  cultivation ;  but  like  many  another  plant  that 
is  easy  to  grow  it  often  fails  completely.  The  season  and  soil  must 
be  warm  and  the  growth  continuous. 

The  natural  soil  for  melons  is  a  light,  sandy  loam,  well  enriched  with 
rotted  manure,  although  good  crops  may  be  grown  on  land  naturally 
heavy  if  the  hills  are  specially  prepared.  When  only  heavy  soil  is 
available,  the  earth  where  the  seeds  are  to  be  planted  should  be  thor- 
oughly pulverized  and  mixed  with  fine,  well-rotted  manure.  A  sprink- 
ling of  leafmold  or  chip-dirt  will  help  to  lighten  it.  On  this  hill  from 
ten  to  fifteen  seeds  may  be  sown,  thinning  to  four  or  five  vines  when 
danger  of  insects  is  over. 

The  season  may  be  advanced  and  the  damage  from  insects  lessened 
by  starting  the  plants  in  hotbeds.  This  may  be  done  by  using  fresh 
sod,  cut  into  6-inch  pieces,  placing  them  grass-side  down  in  the  hotbed, 
sowing  eight  to  ten  seeds  on  each  piece,  and  covering  with  2  inches  of 
light  soil.  When  all  danger  of  frost  is  over,  and  the  ground  has  become 
warm,  these  sods  may  be  carefully  lifted  and  set  in  the  prepared  hills. 
The  plants  usually  grow  without  check,  and  fruit  from  two  to  four  weeks 
ahead  of  those  from  seed  planted  directly  in  the  hill.  Old  quart  berry- 
boxes  are  excellent  to  plant  seeds  in,  as,  when  they  are  set  in  the  ground, 
they  very  quickly  decay,  causing  no  restriction  to  the  roots.  ^ 

Netted  Gem,  Hackensack,  Emerald  Gem,  Montreal,  Osage,  and  the 


488  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Nutmeg  melon  are  popular  varieties.     One  ounce  of  seed  will  plant 
about  fifty  hills. 

Okra.  —  A  plant  of  the  cotton  family,  from  the  green  pods  of  which 
is  made  the  well-known  gumbo  soup  of  the  South,  where  the  plant  is 
more  extensively  grown  than  in  the  North.  The  pods  are  also  used  in 
their  green  state  for  stews,  and  are  dried  and  used  in  winter,  when  they 
are  nutritious,  and  form  no  little  part  of  the  diet  in  certain  sections  of 
the  country. 

The  seeds  are  very  sensitive  to  cold  and  moisture,  and  should  not 
be  sown  until  the  ground  has  become  warm  —  the  last  week  in  May  or 
the  first  of  June  being  early  enough  in  New  York.  The  seed  should  be 
sown  in  a  drill  1  inch  deep,  the  plants  thinned  to  stand  12  inches 
in  the  row.  Give  the  same  culture  as  for  corn.  One  ounce  will  sow 
40  feet  of  drill.  Dwarf  varieties  are  best  for  the  North.  Green 
Density  and  Velvet  are  leading  varieties. 

Onion.  —  A  few  onions,  of  one  kind  or  another,  give  character  to 
every  good  kitchen-garden.  They  are  grown  from  seeds  ("  black 
seed  ")  for  the  main  crop.  They  are  also  grown  from  sets  (which  are 
very  small  onions,  arrested  in  their  development) ;  from  "  tops  " 
(which  are  bulblets  produced  in  the  place  of  flowers) ;  and  from  multi- 
pliers or  potato  onions,  which  are  compound  bulbs. 

The  extremely  early  crop  of  onions  is  grown  from  sets,  and  the  late 
or  fall  crop  is  grown  from  seed  sown  in  April  or  early  May.  The  sets 
may  be  saved  from  the  crop  harvested  the  previous  fall,  saving  no  bulbs 
measuring  over  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  or,  better,  they 
may  be  purchased  from  the  seedsman.  These  sets  should  be  planted  as 
early  as  possible  in  the  sprmg,  preferably  on  land  that  has  been  manured 
and  trenched  in  the  fall.  Plant  in  rows  12  inches  apart,  the  sets 
being  2  or  3  inches  in  the  row.  Push  the  sets  well  down  into  the 
ground  and  cover  with  soil,  firming  them  with  the  feet  or  a  roller.  In 
cultivating,  the  soil  should  be  thrown  towards  the  tops,  as  the  white 
stems  are  usually  sought  as  an  indication  of  mildness.  The  crop  will 
be  in  condition  to  use  in  three  to  four  weeks,  and  may  be  made  to  last 
until  small  seed  onions  are  to  be  had.  Tops  or  multipliers  may  also  be 
used  for  the  early  crop. 


ONION 


489 


In  growing  onions  from  seed,  it  is  only  necessary  to  say  that  the  seed 
should  be  in  the  ground  very  early  in  order  that  the  bulbs  make  their 
growth  before  the  extreme  hot  weather  of  August,  when,  for  want  of 
moisture  and  because  of  the  heat,  the  bulbs  will  ripen  up  while  small. 
Early  in  April,  in  New  York,  if  ^7 

the  ground  is  in   condition,  the  \  V    y  . 

seed  should  be  sown  thickly  in  ^  \  ^*v.  o^>n- 
drills  from  12  to  16  inches  apart, 
and  the  ground  above  the  seeds 
well  firmed.  Good  cultivation 
and  constant  weeding  is  the  price 
of  a  good  crop  of  onions.  In  cul- 
tivating and  hoeing,  the  soil 
should  be  kept  away  from  the 
rows,  not  covering  the  growing 
bulbs,  but  allowing  them  to 
spread  over  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  When  the  crop  is  ready 
to  be  harvested,  the  bulbs  may 
be  pulled  or*  cultivated  up,  left  to 
dry  in  double  rows  for  several 
days,  the  tops  and  roots  taken 
off,  and  the  bulbs  stored  in  a  dry 
place.  Later  in  the  season  they 
may  be  allowed  to  freeze,  cover- 
ing with  chaff  or  straw  to  hold 
them  frozen,  and  kept  until  early 
spring;  but  this  method  is  usually  310.  Bunch  onions,  grown  from  seed, 
unsafe  with  beginners,  and  always  so  in  a  changeable  climate.  Onion 
seed  should  always  be  fresh  when  sown — -preferably  of  the  last  year's 
crop.     One  ounce  of  onion  seed  will  sow  100  feet  of  drill. 

One  of  the  recent  methods  of  securing  extra  large  and  also  early 
bulbs  from  seed  is  to  sow  the  seed  in  a  hotbed  in  February  or  early 
March,  and  transplant  to  the  open  ground  in  April.  A  bunch  of  onions, 
for  eating  from  hand,  is  shown  in  Fig.  310. 

The  Danvers,  Prizetaker,  Globe,  and  Wethersfield  are  favorite  va« 
rieties,  with  the  addition  of  White  Queen  or  Barletta  for  pickling. 


490 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


Parsley.  —  This  is  the  most  universal  of  garnisheSc     It  is  used  also 

as  a  flavoring  in  soups. 

The  seed  is  slow  to  germinate,  and  ofteil  the  second  or  third  sowing 

is  made,  thinking  the  first  is  a  failure;   but  usually  after  what  would 

seem  a  long  time  the  young  plants  will  be 
seen.  When  sown  in  the  open  ground,  it 
should  be  thinned  to  stand  3  or  4  inches  in 
the  row,  the  rows  being  10  to  12  inches 
apart.  A  few  plants  in  a  border  will  give  a 
supply  for  a  large  family,  and  with  a  little 
protection  will  live  over  winter. 

Roots  may  be  lifted  in  the  fall,  put  into 
boxes  or  old  cans,  and  grown  in  a  sunny 
window  for  winter  use.  The  Curled  pars- 
ley is  the  form  commonly  used. 


Parsnip.  —  A  standard  winter  and  spring 
vegetable,  of  the  easiest  culture  in  deep  soil 
(Fig.  311). 

Parsnips  are  the  better  for  the  winter's 
freeze,  although  they  are  of  good  quality  if 
taken  up  after  the  fall  frosts  and  packed  in 
soil,  sand,  or  moss  in  the  cellar. 

The  seed,  which  must  be  not  over  one 
year  old,  should  be  sown  as  early  as  possible 
in  well-prepared  soil,  firmed  with  the  feet 
or  roller.  As  the  seed  germinates  rather 
slowly,  the  ground  often  becomes  crusted 
or  baked  over  the  seeds,  in  which  case  it 
should  be  broken  and  fined  with  a  garden  rake.  This  operation  often 
means  the  success  of  the  crop.  Radish  or  cabbage  seeds  may  be  sown 
with  the  parsnip  seed  to  mark  the  row  and  break  the  crust.  One 
ounce  of  seed  will  sow  200  feet  of  drill.   Thin  to  6  inches  apart  in  the  row. 


311. 


The  Student  parsnip, 
leading  variety. 


Pea.  —  Perhaps  no  vegetable  is  planted  in  greater  expectancy  than 
the  pea.  It  is  one  of  the  earliest  seeds  to  go  into  the  ground,  and  the 
planting  fever  is  impatient. 


PEA  —  PEPPER 


491 


There  is  great  difference  in  quality  between  the  smooth  and  the 
wrinkled  peas.  The  first  are  a  little  the  earliest  to  be  planted  and  to 
become  fit  for  use,  and  on  that  account  should  be  planted  in  a  small 
way;  but  the  wrinkled  sorts  are  much  superior  in  quality. 

The  early  crop  of  peas  may  be  forwarded  by  sprouting  the  seeds  in- 
doors.    Soil  may  be  made  too  rich  or  strong  for  peas. 

For  the  kitchen-garden  the  dwarf  and  half-dwarf  varieties  are  the 
best,  as  the  tall  kinds  will  need  brush  or  wire  to  support  them,  causing 
considerable  trouble  and  labor  and  not  being  as  neat  in  appearance. 
The  dwarf  varieties  should  be  planted  four  rows  in  a  block,  each  row 
being  only  6  or  8  inches  apart.  The  peas  on  the  two  center  rows 
may  be  picked  from  the  outside.  Leave  a  space  of  2  feet  and  plant 
the  same. 

The  tall  varieties  yield  a  larger  crop  than  the  dwarfs,  but  as  the  rows 
must  be  made  from  3  to  5  feet  apart,  the  dwarf  ones,  which  are 
planted  only  6  to  8  inches  apart,  will  give  as  large  a  yield  on  the 
same  area.  Always  plant  double  rows  of  the  tall  varieties ;  that  is, 
two  rows  from  4  to  6  inches  apart,  with  the  brush  or  wire  between, 
the  double  rows  being  from  3  to  5  feet  apart,  according  to  varieties. 

At  the  time  of  the  first  planting  only  the  smooth  varieties  should  be 
sown,  but  by  the  middle  of  April  in  New  York  the  ground  will  be  warm 
and  dry  enough  for  wrinkled  sorts.  Succession  crops  should  be  sown 
that  will  come  to  maturity  one  after 
the  other,  extending  the  season  six 
or  eight  weeks.  If  a  further  supply 
is  wanted,  the  early  quick-maturing 
varieties  may  be  sown  in  August, 
usually  giving  a  fair  crop  of  peas  in 
September  and  early  October.  In 
the  hot  weather  of  midsummer 
they  do  not  thrive  so  well.  One 
quart  of  seed  will  plant  about  100 
feet  of  drill. 


Pepper.  —  The  garden  pepper 
is  not  the  pepper  of  commerce ;  it 
is  more  properly  known   as  red 


312.   One  of  the  bell  peppers. 


492  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

pepper  (though  the  pods  are  not  always  red),  chiUi,  and  capsicum. 
The  pods  are  much  used  in  the  South,  and  most  Northern  households 
now  employ  them  to  some  extent. 

Peppers  are  tender  while  young,  although  they  will  endure  a  heavy 
frost  in  the  fall.  Their  culture  is  that  recommended  for  egg-plants. 
A  small  seedsman's  packet  of  seed  will  be  sufficient  for  a  large  number  of 
plants,  say  two  hundred.  The  large  bell  peppers  (Fig.  312)  are  the 
mildest,  and  are  used  for  making  "  stuffed  peppers  "  and  other  dishes. 
The  small,  hot  peppers  are  used  for  seasoning  and  sauces. 

Potato.  —  The  potato  is  rather  more  a  field  crop  than  a  home-garden 
product;  yet  the  home-gardener  often  desires  to  grow  a  small  early  lot. 

The  common  practice  of  growing  potatoes  on  elevated  ridges  or  hills 
is  wrong,  unless  the  soil  is  so  wet  that  this  practice  is  necessary  to  insure 
proper  drainage  (but  in  this  case  the  land  is  not  adapted  to  the  grow- 
ing of  potatoes),  or  unless  it  is  necessary,  in  a  particular  place,  to  secure 
a  very  early  crop.  If  the  land  is  elevated  into  ridges  or  hills,  there  is 
great  loss  of  moisture  by  means  of  evaporation.  During  the  last  culti- 
vating the  potatoes  may  be  hilled  up  slightly  in  order  to  cover  the  tu- 
bers; but  the  hills  should  not  be  made  in  the  beginning  for  the  main 
crop  if  land  and  conditions  are  right. 

Land  for  potatoes  should  be  rather  loamy  in  character,  and  ought 
to  have  a  liberal  supply  of  potash,  either  naturally  or  supplied  in  the 
drill,  by  means  of  an  application  of  sulfate  of  potash.  See  that  the 
land  is  deeply  plowed  or  spaded,  so  that  the  roots  can  penetrate  deeper. 
Plant  the  potatoes  3  or  4  inches  below  the  natural  surface  of  the 
ground.  It  is  ordinarily  best  to  drop  the  pieces  in  drills.  A  continu- 
ous drill  or  row  may  be  made  by  dropping  one  piece  every  6  inches, 
but  it  is  usually  thought  best  to  drop  two  pieces  about  every  12  to 
18  inches.  The  drills  are  far  enough  apart  to  allow  good  cultivation. 
If  horse  cultivation  is  used,  the  drills  should  be  at  least  3  feet  apart. 

Small  potatoes  are  considered  not  to  be  so  good  as  large  ones  for 
planting.  One  reason  is  because  too  many  sprouts  arise  from  each  one, 
and  these  sprouts  are  likely  to  crowd  each  other.  The  same  is  true  of 
the  tip  end  or  seed  end  of  the  tuber.  Even  when  the  tip  is  cut  off,  the 
eyes  are  so  numerous  that  one  secures  many  weak  shoots  rather  than 
two  or  three  strong  ones.     It  is  ordinarily  best  to  cut  the  potatoes 


POTATO 


RADISH—  RHUBARB 


49:3 


to  two  or  three  eyes,  leaving  as  much  tuber  as  possible  with  each  piece. 
From  7  to  10  bushels  of  potatoes  are  required  to  plant  an  acre. 

For  a  very  early  crop  in  the  garden,  tubers  are  sometimes  sprouted 
in  the  cellar.  When  the  sprouts  are  4  to  6  inches  high,  the  tubers 
are  carefully  planted.  It  is  essential  that  the  sprouts  are  not  broken 
in  the  handling.  In  this  practice,  also,  the  tubers  are  first  cut  into 
large  pieces,  so  that  they  will  not  dry  out  too  much. 

The  staple  remedy  for  the  potato  bug  is  Paris  green,  2  pounds  or 
more  of  poison  to  150  to  200  gallons  of  water,  with  a  little  lime  (see 
page  193).  For  the  blight,  spray  with  bordeaux  mixture,  and  spray 
thoroughly.  Bordeaux  mixture  will  also  keep  away  the  flea  beetle 
to  a  large  extent. 


Radish  (Plate  XXV).  —  In  all  parts  of  the  country  the  radish  is 
popular  as  a  side-dish,  being  used  as  an  appetizer  and  for  its  decora- 
tive character.  It  is  a  poor  product,  however,  if 
misshapen,  wormy,  or  tough. 

Radishes  should  be  grown  quickly  in  order  to 
have  them  at  their  best.  They  become  tough 
and  woody  if  grown  slowly  or  allowed  to  stay  in 
the  ground  too  long.  A  light  soil,  well  enriched, 
will  grow  most  of  the  early  varieties  to  table  size 
in  three  to  five  weeks.  To  have  a  supply  through 
the  early  months,  sowings  should  be  made  every 
two  weeks.  For  spring  use,  the  French  Breakfast 
is  still  a  standard  variety  (Fig.  313). 

For  summer,  the  large  white  or  gray  varieties 
are  best.  The  winter  varieties  may  be  sown  in 
September,  harvested  before  severe  frosts,  and 
stored  in  sand  in  a  cool  cellar.  When  they  are  to 
be  used,  if  thrown  into  cold  water  for  a  short  time 
they  will  regain  their  crispness. 

Sow  radishes  thickly  in  drills,  12  to  18  inches  apart. 


313.  French  Breakfast 
and  olive-shaped 
radishes. 

Thin  as  needed. 


Rhubarb,  or  Pie  plant.  —  A  strong  perennial  herb,  to  be  grown  in  a 
bed  or  row  by  itself  at  one  end  or  side  of  the  garden.  It  is  a  heavy 
feeder  (Fig.  190), 


494 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


Rhubarb  is  usually  propagated  by  division  of  the  fleshy  roots,  small 
pieces  of  which  will  grow  if  separated  from  the  old  established  roots  and 
planted  in  rich  mellow  soil.  Poor  soil  should  be  made  rich  by  spading 
out  at  least  3  feet  of  the  surface,  filling  with  well-rotted  manure  to 
within  1  foot  of  the  level,  throwing  in  the  top  soil  and  setting  the  roots 
with  the  crowns  4  inches  below  the  surface,  firming  them  with  the 
feet.  The  stalks  should  not  be  cut  for  use  until  the  second  year.  See 
that  the  plant  does  not  want  for  water  when  it  is  making  its  heavy  leaf 
growth.  In  fall,  coarse  manure  should  be  thrown  over  the  crowns,  to 
be  forked  or  spaded  in  lightly  when  spring  opens. 

In  growing  seedling  rhubarb,  the  seed  may  be  sown  in  a  coldframe 
in  March  or  April,  protected  from  freezing,  and  in  two  months  the 
plants  will  be  ready  to  set  in  rows,  12  inches 
apart.  Give  the  plants  good  cultivation, 
and  the  following  spring  they  may  be  set  in 
a  permanent  place.  At  this  time  the  plants 
should  be  set  in  well-prepared  ground, 
at  a  distance  each  way  of  4  to  5  feet, 
and  treated  as  those  set  with  pieces  of 
roots. 

If  given  good  care  and  well  manured, 
the  plants  will  live  for  years  and  yield 
abundantly.  Two  dozen  good  roots  will 
supply  a  large  family. 

Salsify,  or  Vegetable  oyster  (Fig.  314). — 
Salsify  is  one  of  the  best  of  winter  and 
early  spring  vegetables,  and  should  be 
grown  in  every  garden.  It  may  be  cooked 
in  several  different  ways,  to  bring  out  the 
oyster  flavor. 

The  seed  should  be  sown  as  early  in 
the  spring  as  possible.  Handle  the  same 
as   parsnips    in    every   way.     The    roots, 


314. 


Salsify,  or  oyster 
plant. 


like  parsnips,  are  the  better  for  the  winter 
freeze,  but   part   of  the    crop    should   be 
dug  in  the  fall,  and  stored  in  soil  or  moss  in  a  cellar  for  winter  use. 


SEA-KALE  —  SPINA  CH  495 

Sea-kale  is  a  strong-rooted  perennial,  the  shoots  of  which  are  very 
highly  prized  as  a  delicacy  when  blanched. 

Seed  should  be  sown  in  a  hotbed  early  in  the  spring,  plants  trans- 
planted to  the  garden  when  from  2  to  3  inches  high,  and  given 
good  cultivation  through  the  season,  being  covered  with  litter  on  the 
approach  of  winter.  The  young  stalks  are  blanched  early  the  follow- 
ing spring  by  covering  with  large  pots  or  boxes,  or  by  banking  with  sand 
or  other  clean  material.  The  Dwarf  Green  Scotch,  Dwarf  Brown,  and 
Siberian  are  among  the  leading  varieties.  Sea-kale  is  eaten  much  as 
asparagus  is.     It  is  highly  prized  by  those  who  know  it. 

Sea-kale  is  also  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  roots  4  or  5  inches 
long,  planted  directly  in  the  soil  in  spring.  The  plant  being  perennial, 
the  early  shoots  may  be  bleached  year  after  year. 

Sorrel  of  the  European  garden  sorts  may  be  sown  in  spring,  in  drills 
16  inches  apart  in  beds,  or  3  to  3i  feet  apart  in  rows.  After  the 
plants  are  well  established  they  should  be  thinned  to  10  to  12 
inches  apart  in  the  rows.  They  are  perennial,  and  may  be  kept  grow- 
ing in  the  same  place  for  several  years.  Broad-leaved  French  is  the 
most  popular  variety. 

Spearmint  is  prized  by  many  persons  as  a  seasoning,  particularly  for 
the  Thanksgiving  and  holiday  cookery. 

It  is  a  perennial  and  perfectly  hardy,  and  will  live  in  the  open  garden 
year  after  year.  If  a  supply  of  the  fresh  herbage  is  wanted  in  winter, 
remove  sods  of  it  to  the  house  six  weeks  before  wanted.  Place  the  sods 
in  boxes,  and  treat  as  for  house  plants.  The  plants  should  have  been 
frosted  and  become  perfectly  dormant  before  removal. 

Spinach.  —  The  most  extensively  grown  of  all  ''  greens,"  being  in 
season  in  earliest  spring,  and  in  fall  and  winter. 

The  earliest  spinach  that  finds  its  way  to  market  is  produced  from 
seed  sown  in  September  or  October,  often  protected  by  frames  or  other 
means  through  the  severe  winter,  and  cut  soon  after  growth  starts  in 
early  spring.  Even  as  far  north  as  New  York  spinach  may  stand  over 
winter  without  protection. 

Spinach  is  forced  by  placing  sash  over  the  frames  in  February  and 


496  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

March,  protecting  the  young  leaves  from  severe  freezing  by  mats  ol 
straw  thrown  over  the  frames. 

Seed  may  be  sown  in  early  spring  for  a  succession ;  later  in  the  season 
seed  of  the  New  Zealand  summer  spinach  may  be  sown,  and  this  will 
grow  through  the  heat  of  the  summer  and  yield  a  fine  quality  of  leaves. 
The  seed  of  this  kind,  being  very  hard,  should  be  scalded  and  allowed 
to  soak  a  few  hours  before  sowing.  This  seed  is  usually  sown  in  hills 
about  3  feet  apart,  sowing  four  to  six  seed  in  each  hill. 

The  spring  and  winter  spinach  should  be  sown  in  drills  12  to 
14  inches  apart,  one  ounce  being  sufficient  for  100  feet  of  drill. 
Remember  that  common  spinach  is  a  cool-weather  (fall  and  spring) 
crop. 

Squash.  —  The  summer  squashes  rarely  fail  of  a  crop  if  they  once 
escape  the  scourge  of  the  striped  beetle  (p.  201).     The  late  varieties 

are  not  so  certain;  they  must  secure  a 
strong  start,  and  be  on  ^'  quick  "  fertile 
warm  land  in  order  to  make  a  crop  be- 
fore the  cool  nights  of  fall  (Fig.  315). 

The  time  of  planting,  method  of  prepar- 
ing the  hills,  and  after-culture  are  the  same 
as  for  cucumbers  and  melons,  except  that 
315.  One  o^the  so-called  Jap-   f^i"  the  early  bush  varieties  the  hills  should 
anese  type  of  squash  {Cii-  be-  4  or  5  feet   apart,  and  for  the  later 
curhita  moschata).  running  varieties  from  6  to  8  feet  apart. 

From  eight  to  ten  seeds  should  be  planted  in  each  hill,  thinning  to 
four  plants  after  danger  from  bugs  is  over.  Of  the  early  squashes, 
one  ounce  of  seed  will  plant  fifty  hills ;  of  the  later  varieties,  one  ounce 
will  plant  but  eighteen  to  twenty  hills.  For  winter  use,  varieties  of 
the  Hubbard  type  are  best.  For  summer  use,  the  Crooknecks  and 
Scallop  squashes  are  popular.  In  growing  winter  squashes  in  a  North- 
ern climate,  it  is  essential  that  the  plants  start  off  quickly  and  vigor- 
ously: a  little  chemical  fertilizer  will  help. 
Pumpkins  are  grown  the  same  as  squashes. 

Sweet-potato  is  rarely  grown  north  of  Philadelphia;  in  the  South  it 
is  a  universal  garden  crop. 


S  WEE  T-P  OTA  TO  —  TO  MA  TO  497 

Sweet-potatoes  are  grown  from  sprouts  planted  on  ridges  or  hills, 
not  by  planting  the  tubers,  as  with  the  common  or  Irish  potato.  The 
method  of  obtaining  these  sprouts  is  as  follows:  In  April,  tubers  of 
sweet-potatoes  are  planted  in  a  partially  spent  hotbed  by  using  the 
whole  tuber  (or  if  a  large  one,  by  cutting  it  in  two  through  the  long  way), 
covering  the  tubers  with  2  inches  of  light,  well-firmed  soil.  The  sash 
should  be  put  on  the  frames  and  only  enough  ventilation  given  to  keep 
the  potatoes  from  decaying.  In  ten  or  twelve  days  the  young  sprouts 
should  begin  to  appear,  and  the  bed  should  be  watered  if  dry.  The 
sprouts  when  pulled  from  the  tuber  will  be  found  to  have  rootlets  at  the 
lower  end  and  along  the  stems.  These  sprouts  should  be  about  3  to  5 
inches  long  by  the  time  the  ground  is  warm  enough  to  plant  them 
out  on  their  ridges. 

The  ridges  or  hills  should  be  prepared  by  plowing  out  a  furrow  4  to 
6  inches  deep.  Scatter  manure  in  the  furrow  and  plow  back  the  soil 
so  as  to  raise  the  center  at  least  6  inches  above  the  level  of  the  soil. 
On  this  ridge  the  plants  are  set,  placing  the  plants  well  in  to  the  leaves 
and  about  12  to  18  inches  apart  in  the  rows,  the  rows  being  from  3  to  4 
feet  apart. 

The  after-cultivation  consists  in  stirring  the  soil  between  the  ridges; 
and  as  the  vines  begin  to  run  they  should  be  lifted  frequently  to  pre- 
vent rooting  at  the  joints.  When  the  tips  of  the  vines  have  been 
touched  by  frost  the  crop  may  be  harvested,  the  tubers  left  to  dry  a  few 
days,  and  stored  in  a  dry,  warm  place. 

To  keep  sweet  potatoes,  store  in  layers  in  barrels  or  boxes  in  dry 
sand,  and  keep  them  in  a  dry  room  See  that  all  bruised  or  chilled 
potatoes  are  thrown  out. 

Tomato.  —  The  tomato  is  an  inhabitant  of  practically  every  home 
garden,  and  everybody  understands  its  culture  (Fig.  316). 

The  early  fruits  are  very  easily  grown  by  starting  the  plants  in  a 
greenhouse,  hotbed,  or  in  shallow  boxes  placed  in  windows.  A  pinch 
of  seed  sown  in  March  will  give  all  the  early  plants  a  large  family  can 
use.  When  the  plants  have  reached  the  height  of  2  or  3  inches, 
they  should  be  transplanted  into  3-inch  flower-pots,  old  berry 
boxes,  or  other  receptacles,  and  allowed  to  grow  slowly  and  stocky 
until  time  to  set  them  out,  which  is  from  May  15  on  (in  New  York), 
2k 


498 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


They  should  be  set  in  rows  4  or  5  feet  apart,  the  plants  being  the 
same  distance  in  the  rows. 

Some  support  should  be  given  to  keep  the  fruits  off  the  ground  and 
to  hasten  the  ripening.  A  trellis  of  chicken- wire  makes  an  excellent 
support,  as  does  the  light  lath  fencing  that  may  be  bought  or  made  at 
home.     Stout  stakes,  with  wire  strung  the  length  of  the  rows,  afford 

an  excellent  support.  A  very 
showy  method  is  that  of  a  frame 
made  like  an  inverted  V,  which 
allows  the  fruits  to  hang  free  ; 
with  a  little  attention  to  trimming. 


316.   A  good  form  or  type  of  tomato. 


317.   A  tomato  trellis. 


the  light  reaches  the  fruits  and  ripens  them  perfectly  (Fig.  317).  This 
support  is  made  by  leaning  together  two  lath  frames. 

The  late  fruits  may  be  picked  green  and  ripened  on  a  shelf  in  the 
sun ;  or  they  will  ripen  if  placed  in  a  drawer. 

One  ounce  of  seed  will  be  enough  for  from  twelve  to  fifteen  hundred 
plants.  A  little  fertilizer  in  the  hill  will  start  the  plants  off  quickly. 
The  rot  is  less  serious  when  the  vines  are  kept  off  the  ground  and  the 
rampant  suckers  are  cut  out.  Varieties  pass  out  and  new  ones  come 
into  notice,  so  that  a  list  is  of  small  permanent  value. 


Turnips  and  Rutabagas  are  little  grown  in  home  gardens;  and  yet 
a  finer  quality  of  vegetable  than  most  persons  know  could  be  secured 
if  these  plants  were  raised  on  one's  own  soil  and  brought  fresh  to  the 
table.  They  are  usually  a  fall  crop,  from  seed  sown  in  July  and  early 
August,  although  some  kitchen-gardens  have  them  from  spring-sown 
seed.     The  culture  is  easy. 


TURNIP  —  WA  TERMEL  ON  499 

Turnips  should  be  grown  in  drills,  like  beets,  for  the  early  crop. 
The  young  plants  will  stand  light  frosts.  Choose  a  rainy  day  for  plant- 
ing, if  practicable.  Cover  the  seed  very  lightly.  Thin  the  young 
plants  to  5  to  7  inches  in  the  row.  Sow  every  two  weeks  if  a 
constant  supply  is  desired,  as  turnips  rapidly  become  hard  and  woody 
in  warm  summer  weather.  For  the  fall  and  winter  crop  in  the  North, 
"On  the  fourteenth  day  of  July, 
Sow  your  turnips,  wet  or  dry.'' 

In  many  parts  of  the  northern  and  middle  states  tradition  fixes 
the  25th  of  July  as  the  proper  time  for  sowing  flat  turnips  for  winter 
use.  In  the  middle  states,  turnips  are  sometimes  sown  as  late  as  the 
end  of  August.  Prepare  a  piece  of  very  mellow  ground,  and  sow  the 
seed  thinly  and  evenly  broadcast.  In  spite  of  the  old  rhyme,  a  gentle 
shower  will  then  be  acceptable.  These  turnips  are  pulled  after  frost, 
the  tops  removed,  and  the  roots  stored  in  cellars  or  pits. 

For  the  early  crop.  Purple-top  Strap-leaf,  Early  White  Flat  Dutch, 
and  Early  Purple-top  Milan  are  the  favorite  varieties.  Yellow-fleshed 
sorts  like  Golden  Ball  are  very  fine  for  early  table  use,  when  well  grown, 
but  most  eaters  prefer  white  turnips  in  spring,  although  they  occasion- 
ally patronize  the  yellow  varieties  in  the  fall.  Yellow  Globe  is  the 
favorite  yellow  fall  turnip,  though  some  persons  grow  yellow  rutabagas 
and  call  them  turnips.  For  late  crop  of  white  turnips,  the  same  varie- 
ties chosen  for  spring  sowing  are  also  desirable. 

Rutabagas  are  distinguished  from  turnips  by  their  smooth,  bluish 
foliage,  long  root,  and  yellow  flesh.  They  are  richer  than  turnips; 
they  require  the  same  treatment,  except  that  the  season  of  growth 
is  longer.  Fall-sown  or  summer-sown  bagas  should  have  a  month  the 
start  of  flat  turnips. 

Except  the  maggot  (see  cabbage  maggot,  p.  201),  there  are  no 
serious  insects  or  diseases  peculiar  to  turnips  and  bagas. 

Watermelon.  —  The  watermelon  is  shipped  everywhere  in  such 
enormous  quantities,  and  it  covers  so  much  space  in  the  garden,  that 
home-gardeners  in  the  North  seldom  grow  it.  When  one  has  room, 
it  should  be  added  to  the  kitchen-garden. 

The  culture  is  essentially  that  for  muskmelons  (which  see),  except 
that  most  varieties  require  a  warmer  place  and  longer  period  of  growth. 


500  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Give  the  hills  a  distance  of  6  to  10  feet  apart.  Choose  a  warm, 
"quick"  soil  and  sunny  exposure.  It  is  essential,  in  the  North,  that 
the  plants  grow  rapidly  and  come  into  bloom  early.  One  ounce  of 
seed  will  plant  thirty  hills. 

There  are  several  white  or  yellow-fleshed  varieties,  but  aside  from 
their  oddity  of  appearance  they  have  little  value.  A  good  watermelon 
has  a  solid,  bright  red  flesh,  preferably  with  black  seeds,  and  a  strong 
protecting  rind.  Kolb  Gem,  Jones,  Boss,  Cuban  Queen,  and  Dixie 
are  among  the  best  varieties.  There  are  early  varieties  that  will  ripen 
in  the  Northern  season,  and  make  a  much  better  melon  than  those 
secured  on  the  market. 

The  so-called  "citron,"  with  hard  white  flesh,  used  in  making  pre- 
serves, is  a  form  of  watermelon. 


CHAPTER  XI 

SEASONAL    REMINDERS 

The  author  assumes  that  a  person  who  is  intelligent  enough 
to  make  a  garden,  does  not  need  an  arbitrary  calendar  of 
operations.  Too  exact  advice  is  misleading  and  unpractical. 
Most  of  the  older  gardening  books  were  arranged  wholly  on 
the  calendar  method  —  giving  specific  directions  for  each  month 
in  the  year.  We  have  now  accumulated  sufficient  fact  and 
experience,  however,  to  enable  us  to  state  principles;  and  these 
principles  can  be  applied  anywhere,  —  when  supplemented 
by  good  judgment,  —  whereas  mere  rules  are  arbitrary  and 
generally  useless  for  any  other  condition  than  that  for  which 
they  were  specifically  made.  The  regions  of  gardening  experi- 
ence have  expanded  enormously  within  the  past  fifty  and  seventy- 
five  years.  Seasons  and  conditions  vary  so  much  in  different 
years  and  different  places  that  no  hard,  and  fast  advice  can  be 
given  for  the  performing  of  gardening  operations,  yet  brief  hints 
for  the  proper  work  of  the  various  months  may  be  useful  as  sug- 
gestions and  reminders. 

The  Monthly  Reminders  are  compiled  from  files  of  the 
''American  Garden"  of  some  years  back,  when  the  author  had 
editorial  charge  of  that  magazine.  The  advice  for  the  North 
(pages  504  to  516)  was  written  by  T.  Greiner,  La  Salle,  N.Y. 
well  known  as  a  gardener  and  author.  That  for  the  South 
(pages  516  to  526)  was  made  by  H.  W.  Smith,  Baton  Rouge, 
La.,  for  the  first  nine  months,  and  it  was  extended  for  "Garden- 
Making"  to  the  months  of  October,  November,  and  December 
by  F.  H.  Burnette,  Horticulturist  of  the  Louisiana  Experiment 
Station. 

501 


502 


MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 


KITCHEN-GARDEN  PLANTING  TABLE 

A  Guide  to  the  Proper  Times  for  Sowing  of  Various  Seeds 

IN  Order  to  obtain  Continuous  Succession 

OF  Crops 


VEQETABLES 
KITCHEN  GARDEN. 

\ 

1 

a. 

a 
s 

i 

s 

i 

1 

1 

T 

2 
0 

j 

1 
1 

12 

io 
12 

ExpUiutlon  of  5lgiia  UMd 
In  the  Table. 

Artichoke,  Ann 
Fre 
Asparagus 
Beans,  Bush 
"       Pole  an 

Beets. 

Borecole.  Kale 
Broccoli  .    . 
Brussels  Spro 
Cabbage,  all « 
Cardoon 
Carrot 
Cauliflower 
Celeriac  .    . 
Celery     . 
Chicory   .    . 
Collards  .    . 
Corn,  Field  . 

-       Sweet 
Pop    . 

"       Salad 

Cress  .    .    . 

Cucumber   . 
Egg  Plants 
Endive    .    . 
Kohlrabi      . 
Leek  .    .    . 
Lettuce   .    . 
Mangel 
Melon 
Mushroom 
Mustard  . 
Nasturtium 
Okra    .    . 
Onion  .    .    . 
Parsnips 
Parsley    .    . 
Peas    .    .    . 
Pepper 
Potatoes     . 
Pumpkin      . 
Radish    .    . 
Rutabaga    . 
Salsify     .    . 
Seakale  .    . 
Spinach  .    . 
Squash    .    . 
Tomato  .    . 
Turnips  ,       . 

ut 

jrl 

can 

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»  To  be  sown  In  opeo  gronod 
without     transpUntlng. 
Plants  h»»e  to  be  thinned  out. 
given  proper  distance. 

1.  Sow  on  seed  bed  In  the 
garden,  and  transplant  thenee 
U,  permanent  place. 

2.  Make    two     sowings    In 
open     ground     during     the 
month. 

3.  Make    three    sowings   in 
open     ground     during     the 
month. 

4.  Start  In  greenhouse  or 
hot-bed,    and    plant    out    so 
soon    as    the    ground    Is    in 
good  shape,  and  weather  per- 
mits. 

S  Sow  In  open  ground  k. 
soon  as  it  can  be  worked. 

«.  To  be  grown  only  In  hot- 
bed or  greenhouse. 

7.  Sow  In  cold  frame,  keey 
plants  there  over  winter  with 
a  little  protection  ;  plant  out 
In  spring  as  soon  as  the  groiind 
can  be  worked. 

8.  To   be    sown    lo    open 
ground,   and  protected  with 
litter  over  winter. 

8.  Plant  In  frame.     When 
cold    weather  seta   In,  cover 
with  sash  and  straw  mats. 
PUnts  will  be  rearfy  for  use 
in  December  and  January. 

10.  Plant  In  cellar,  bam  or 
under  benches  In  greenhouse 

11.  Plant  outdoors  on  pre- 
pared beds. 

13.  Sow  every  week  in  green- 
house or  fmme,  to  haveagood 
succession. 

N.B.-For  last  planting  of 
Beans,  Sweet  Corn,  Kohlrabi. 
Peas  and    Radishes,  or  even 
Tomatoes,  take    the  earliest 
varieties,  Ju.t  the  same  as  are 
used  for  first  planting. 

are  intended  to  remain  undis- 
turbed   over  winter.      RooU 
from  these  sowings  will,  the 
next  year,  attain  a  else  dwM* 
that  usually  see>. 

SEASONAL   REMINDERS 


503 


504  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

SUGGESTIONS  AND  REMINDERS.  —  I.    FOR  THE  NORTH 

JANUARY 

Cabbage  plants  in  frames  need  free  airing  whenever  the  temperature 
is  above  the  freezing  point,  or  so  long  as  the  soil  of  the  bed  is  not 
frozen.  Snow,  in  that  case,  should  be  removed  soon  after  its  fall. 
As  long  as  the  soil  is  frozen  the  snow  can  safely  be  left  on  for  a  number 
of  days.  Cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  lettuce  seed  should  be  sown  at 
intervals  to  secure  plants  for  extra-early  sales  or  setting.  A  month 
later  they  will  be  ready  to  transfer  to  boxes,  which  should  go  to  the 
coldframe  and  be  given  protection  by  mats  or  shutters. 

Coldframes  must  be  well  ventilated  on  warm,  sunny  days;  leave 
the  sashes  off  as  long  as  is  possible  without  injury  to  the  plants.  Keep 
the  soil  in  a  friable  condition,  and  look  carefully  to  any  possible  places 
where  water  can  stand  and  freeze.  If  the  frames  seem  too  cold,  bank 
up  around  them  with  coarse  manure. 

Hotbeds.  —  Look  up  and  repair  the  sashes.  Save  the  horse-manure 
from  day  to  day,  rejecting  dry  litter,  and  piling  up  the  droppings  and 
urine-soaked  bedding  in  thin  layers  to  prevent  violent  heating. 

Lettuce  in  frames  treat  as  advised  for  cabbage  plants. 

Pruning  should  now  be  considered.  Perhaps  it  is  best  to  prune 
fruit-trees  in  March  or  April,  but  grapes  and  currants  and  gooseberries 
may  be  pruned  now.  January  and  February  are  good  months  in  which 
to  prune  peach  trees.  Thin  out  the  peach  trees  well,  taking  care  to 
remove  all  the  dead  wood.  If  you  have  much  pruning  to  do  in  apple, , 
pear,  or  plum  orchards,  you  will  save  time  by  utilizing  the  warm  days 
now.  Study  well  the  different  methods  of  pruning.  Never  let  an 
itinerant  pruner  touch  your  trees  until  you  are  satisfied  that  he  under- 
stands his  business. 

Tools  should  now  be  inspected  and  repaired,  and  any  new  ones  that 
are  needed  made  or  ordered. 

FEBRUARY 

Cabbage.  —  Sow  seed  of  Jersey  Wakefield  in  flats  filled  with  light 
loamy  soil,  the  last  week  of  this  month.  Sow  thinly,  cover  lightly, 
and  place  the  boxes  in  a  gentle  hotbed  or  any  warm,  sunny  situation. 
When  the  plants  are  strong,  transplant  them  into  flats  1^  in.  apart 


SEASONAL   REMINDERS  505 

each  way.  As  growth  begins,  gradually  expose  them  to  the  open  air 
on  all  favorable  occasions.  Late  in  March  remove  them  to  a  cold- 
frame,  and  properly  harden  them  off  before  setting  them  in  the  open 
ground. 

Celery.  —  We  urgently  advise  every  one  who  has  a  garden,  large 
or  small,  to  make  a  trial  of  the  new  celery-culture.  You  need,  first, 
good  plants.  Get  some  seed  of  White  Plume  or  Golden  Self-blanch- 
ing, and  sow  it  thickly  in  flats  filled  with  fine  loam.  Cover  by  sifting 
a  thin  layer  of  sand  or  fine  soil  over  it,  and  firm  well.  Keep  in  a  mod- 
erately warm  place,  watering  as  needed,  until  plants  appear.  If  you 
have  a  number  of  flats,  they  may  be  placed  on  top  of  one  another. 
At  the  first  sign  of  plant-growth,  bring  the  flats  gradually  to  the  light. 
When  the  plants  are  H  or  2  in.  high,  transplant  them  into  other  flats, 
setting  them  in  rows  2^  in.  apart,  the  plants  half  an  inch  apart  in 
the  rows.  Then  set  the  flats  in  a  coldframe  until  the  plants  are  large 
enough  to  plant  out  in  the  open  ground. 

Hotbeds  for  raising  early  plants  should  be  made  this  month.  Always 
break  the  manure  up  fine  and  tread  it  down  well.  Be  sure  to  put 
enough  in  the  center  of  beds,  so  that  there  will  be  no  sagging.  Fresh 
manure  of  hard-worked  and  well-fed  horses,  free  from  dry  litter,  is 
best.  An  addition  of  leaves  used  for  bedding  will  serve  to  produce 
a  more  moderate  but  more  lasting  heat.  Sheep-manure  may  also 
be  added  to  the  horse-manure,  should  there  be  a  scant  supply  of  the 
latter  on  hand. 

Onions.  —  We  urgently  advise  giving  the  new  onion-culture  a  trial. 
For  seed,  buy  a  packet  or  an  ounce  of  Prizetaker,  Spanish  King,  White 
Victoria,  or  some  other  large  kind  of  globe  onion.  Sow  the  seed  in 
flats,  in  a  hotbed,  or  in  a  greenhouse  late  in  the  month,  and  trans- 
plant the  onions  to  the  open  ground  as  soon  as  the  latter  is  in  working 
condition.  Set  the  plants  in  rows  1  ft.  apart  and  about  3  in.  apart 
in  the  row. 

Plums.  —  Make  a  thorough  inspection  of  all  plum  and  cherry  trees, 
wild  and  cultivated,  for  plum-knot.  Cut  and  burn  all  the  knots  found. 
Remove  all  "  mummy  "  plums,  for  they  spread  the  fruit-rot. 

Rhubarb.  —  Give  the  plants  in  the  garden  a  heavy  dressing  of  fine 
old  compost.  If  you  wish  a  few  early  stalks,  place  kegs  or  boxes  over 
some  of  the  plants,  and  heap  over  them  some  heating  horse-manure 


506  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

MARCH 

Beets.  —  A  few  seeds  may  be  sown  in  the  hotbed. 

Cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  celery  seeds  may  be  sown  for  the  early  crop. 

Egg-plants.  —  Seeds  should  be  sown.  Take  care  that  the  young 
plants  are  never  stunted. 

Grafting  may  be  done  in  favorable  weather.  Cherries  and  plums 
must  be  grafted  early.     Use  liquid  grafting-wax  in  cold  weather. 

Hotbeds  may  be  made  at  any  time,  but  do  not  grow  impatient  about 
the  work,  for  there  will  be  cold  weather  yet.  Clean,  fresh  manure  is 
necessary,  and  a  layer  2  ft.  thick  should  be  tramped  hard.  When 
once  started  and  the  seeds  sown,  do  not  let  the  beds  get  too  hot.  Give 
them  air  on  fine  days  and  give  the  seedlings  plenty  of  water.  Use  two 
thermometers  —  one  to  test  the  atmosphere  and  the  other  the  heat 
of  the  soil. 

Lettuce  should  be  sown  in  the  hotbed  for  an  early  crop. 

Onion  seed  for  the  new  onion-culture  may  be  sown  at  the  close  of 
the  month. 

Peas.  —  Sow  now,  if  the  ground  can  be  worked. 

Peppers  may  be  sown  late  in  the  month. 

Potatoes  kept  for  seed  must  not  be  allowed  to  sprout.  Keep  them 
in  a  temperature  near  freezing  point.  Rub  off  the  sprouts  from 
potatoes  kept  for  eating,  and  pick  out  all  decayed  specimens. 

Spinach.  —  Sow  some  seeds  for  an  early  crop. 

Tomato  seeds  may  be  sown  in  the  hotbeds. 

APRIL 

Artichokes.  —  Sow  the  seeds  for  next  year's  crop.  A  deep,  rich, 
sandy  loam  is  best.  Fork  in  a  dressing  of  well-rotted  manure  around 
the  old  plants. 

Asparagus.  —  Spade  in  some  good  manure  in  the  bed,  and  give 
the  soil  a  thorough  working  before  the  crowns  start.  Sow  seeds  in  the 
open  ground  for  young  plants  for  a  new  bed. 

Beans.  —  Limas  may  be  started  on  sods  in  a  hotbed  or  a  coldframe 
towards  the  last  of  the  month. 

Beets.  —  The  ground  should  be  prepared  and  the  seed  sown  for 
beets  for  cattle  as  soon  as  the  weather  will  permit.     Put  them  in  before 


SEASONAL   REMINDERS  50? 

planting  corn.  They  will  stand  considerable  cold  weather,  and  should 
be  planted  early  to  get  a  start  of  the  weeds. 

Blackberries  should  be  pruned,  the  brush  drawn  off,  piled,  and 
burned.  If  it  is  necessary  to  stake  them,  try  a  wire  trellis,  the  same 
as  for  grapes,  putting  on  one  wire  2|  ft.  high.  The  young  plants  should 
be  dug  before  the  buds  start. 

Cabbage  seed  may  be  sown  in  the  open  ground,  in  coldframes,  or 
in  pans  or  boxes  in  the  house.  Early  varieties  should  be  started  at 
once.  Cabbages  like  a  rich  and  heavy  loam,  with  good  drainage.  Give 
them  all  the  manure  you  can  get. 

Cauliflower  seeds  may  be  sown  toward  the  last  of  the  month.  They 
should  never  have  a  check  from  the  time  the  seed  is  sown  until  harvested. 

Carrot.  —  Sow  the  seed  of  early  sorts,  like  Early  Forcing,  as  soon 
as  the  ground  can  be  worked. 

Celery.  —  Plan  to  grow  celery  by  the  new  method.  Plenty  of 
manure  and  moisture  are  required  to  do  this.  Sow  the  seed  in  light, 
rich  soil  in  the  house,  hotbed,  coldframe,  or  open  ground.  Transplant 
the  plants  once  before  setting  them  in  the  field.     Page  505. 

Cress.  —  Sow  early  and  every  two  or  three  weeks.  Watercress 
should  be  sown  in  damp  soil  or  in  streams.  The  outer  edges  of  a  hot- 
bed may  also  be  utilized.  Cress  is  often  a  profitable  crop  when  rightly 
handled. 

Cucumber  seeds  may  be  sown  on  sods  in  the  hotbed. 

Egg-plant.  —  Sow  in  the  hotbed,  and  transplant  when  2  in.  high  to 
other  beds  or  pots.  They  must  have  good  care,  for  a  check  in  their 
growth  means  all  the  difference  between  profit  and  loss. 

Lettuce.  —  Sow  the  seeds  in  the  hotbed,  and  in  the  open  ground  as 
soon  as  it  can  be  worked.  Plants  sown  a  month  ago  should  be  trans- 
planted. 

Leek.  —  Sow  the  seeds  in  the  open  ground  in  drills  6  in.  apart  and 
1  in.  deep,  and  when  large  enough,  thin  to  1  in.  in  the  row. 

Muskmelon.  —  Plant  seeds  in  sods  in  the  hotbed. 

Parsnip.  —  Dig  the  roots  before  they  grow  and  become  soft  and 
pithy.  Seeds  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry  enough  to 
work. 

Parsley.  —  Soak  the  seeds  in  warm  water  for  a  few  hours,  and  sow 
in  the  open  ground. 


508  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

Peas.  —  Sow  the  seeds  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked.  They 
will  stand  considerable  cold  and  transplanting  also.  Time  may  be 
gained  by  sowing  some  seeds  in  moist  sand  in  a  box  in  the  cellar  and 
transplanting  when  well  sprouted.  Plant  deep  in  light,  dry  soil ;  cover 
an  inch  at  first,  and  draw  in  the  earth  as  the  vines  grow. 

Potatoes.  —  Plant  early  on  rich  soil  free  from  blight  and  scab.  For 
a  very  early  crop,  the  potatoes  may  be  sprouted  before  planting. 

Peppers.  —  Sow  the  seeds  in  the  hotbed  or  in  the  boxes  in  the  house. 

Radish  seeds  may  be  sown  in  the  open  ground  or  in  the  hotbed  and 
the  crop  harvested  from  there.  The  small,  round  varieties  are  best 
for  this  purpose. 

Strawberries.  —  Give  a  good,  thorough  cultivation  between  the  rows 
and  then  remove  the  mulch  from  the  plants,  placing  it  in  the  rows, 
where  it  will  help  to  keep  the  weeds  down. 

Salsify.  —  Sow  the  seeds  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked. 
Give  the  same  care  and  cultivation  as  for  carrots  or  parsnips. 

Spinach  seeds  must  be  sown  early,  and  then  every  two  weeks  for 
a  succession.  Thin  out  and  use  the  plants  before  they  send  up  flower- 
stalks. 

Squashes.  —  Hubbards  and  summer  squashes  may  be  started  on 
sods  in  the  hotbed. 

Tomato.  —  Sow  in  the  hotbed  or  in  shallow  boxes  in  the  house. 
Try  some  of  the  yellow  varieties ;  they  are  the  finest  flavored  of  any. 

MAY 

Beans.  —  The  bush  sorts  may  be  planted  in  the  open  ground, 
and  hmas  in  pots  or  sods  in  a  coldframe  or  spent  hotbed.  Limas  re- 
quire a  long  season  to  mature,  and  should  be  started  early. 

Beets.  —  Sow  for  a  succession.  Transplant  those  started  under 
glass. 

Cabbages  always  do  best  on  a  freshly  turned  sod,  and  should  be 
set  before  the  land  has  had  time  to  dry  after  plowing.  The  secret  of 
success  in  getting  a  large  yield  of  cabbage  is  to  start  with  rich  land 
and  put  on  all  the  manure  obtainable.  Clean  out  the  hog  yard  for 
this  purpose. 

Cucumbers.  —  Sow  in  the  open  ground  toward  the  last  of  the  month. 
A  few  may  be  started  as  advised  for  lima  beans. 


SEASONAL   REMINDERS  509 

Lettuce.  —  Sow  for  a  succession,  and  thin  to  4  in.  in  the  rows. 

Melons.  —  Plant  in  the  open  ground  toward  the  end  of  the  month. 
It  is  useless  to  plant  melons  and  other  cucurbitaceous  plants  until 
settled  weather  has  arrived. 

Onions.  —  Finish  planting  and  transplanting,  and  keep  all  weeds 
down,  both  in  the  seed-bed  and  the  open  field. 

Peas.  —  Sow  for  a  succession. 

Squashes.  —  Plant  as  advised  for  melons  and  cucumbers.  They 
require  a  rich,  well-manured  soil. 

Strawberries.  —  Remove  the  blossoms  from  newly  set  plants. 
Mulch  with  salt  hay  or  marsh  hay  or  clean  straw  or  leaves  those  that 
are  to  bear.  Mulching  conserves  moisture,  keeps  the  berries  clean, 
and  prevents  weeds  from  growing. 

Sweet  corn.  —  Plant  early  and  late  varieties,  and  by  making  two 
or  three  plantings  of  each,  at  intervals,  a  succession  may  be  kept  up 
all  summer  and  fall.  Sweet  corn  is  delicious,  and  one  can  hardly  have 
too  much  of  it. 

Tomatoes.  —  Set  some  early  plants  by  the  middle  of  the  month 
or  earlier,  if  the  ground  is  warm,  and  the  season  early  and  fair.  They 
may  be  protected  from  the  cold  by  covering  with  hay,  straw,  cloth,  or 
paper,  or  even  with  earth.  The  main  crop  should  not  be  set  until  the 
20th  or  25th,  or  until  all  danger  of  frost  is  over.  However,  tomatoes 
will  stand  more  chilly  weather  than  is  ordinarily  supposed. 

JUNE 

Asparagus.  —  Cease  cutting  and  allow  the  shoots  to  grow.  Keep 
the  weeds  down  and  the  soil  well  stirred.  An  application  of  a  quick 
commercial  fertilizer  or  of  liquid  manure  will  be  beneficial. 

Beans.  —  Sow  the  wax  sorts  for  succession.  As  soon  as  a  crop  is 
off,  pull  out  the  vines  and  plant  the  ground  to  late  cabbage,  turnips, 
or  sweet  corn. 

Beets.  —  Transplant  in  rows  1  to  3  ft.  apart  and  6  in.  in  the  row. 
Cut  off  most  of  the  top,  water  thoroughly,  and  they  will  soon  start. 

Cabbage  and  cauliflower.  —  Set  plants  for  the  late  crop.  Rich, 
newly  turned  sod  and  a  heavy  dressing  of  well-rotted  manure  go  a  long 
way  toward  assuring  a  good  crop. 


510  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Celery.  —  Set  the  main  crop,  and  try  the  new  method  of  setting  the 
plants  7  in.  apart  each  way,  if  you  have  rich  land  and  can  irrigate, 
but  not  unless  these  conditions  are  present.     Page  505. 

Cucumbers  may  yet  be  planted,  if  done  early  in  the  month. 

Currants.  —  Spray  with  Paris  green  for  the  currant  worm  until 
the  fruit  sets.  Hellebore  is  good,  but  it  is  difficult  to  get  it  of  good 
strength ;  use  it  for  all  late  spraying. 

Lettuce.  —  Sow  for  succession  in  a  moist,  cool,  and  partially  shaded 
spot.     The  seed  does  not  germinate  well  m  hot  weather. 

Lima  beans  should  be  hoed  frequently,  and  started  on  the  poles  if 
they  are  contrary. 

Melons.  —  Cultivate  often  and  watch  for  the  bugs.  A  screen  of 
closely  woven  wire  or  mosquito  netting  may  be  used  to  cover  the  vines, 
or  tobacco  dust  sifted  on  thickly. 

Onions.  —  Keep  free  from  weeds  and  stir  the  ground  frequently 
and  especially  after  every  rain. 

Squashes.  —  Keep  the  ground  well  cultivated  and  look  out  for  bugs. 
(See  Melons.)  Layer  the  vines  and  cover  the  joints  with  fresh  soil, 
to  prevent  death  of  the  vines  from  the  attacks  of  the  borer. 

Strawberries.  —  Plow  up  the  old  bed  that  has  borne  two  crops, 
as  it  will  usually  not  pay  to  keep  it.  Set  the  ground  to  late  cabbage 
or  some  other  crop.  The  young  bed  that  has  borne  the  first  crop  should 
have  a  thorough  cultivation  and  the  plow  run  close  to  the  rows  to 
narrow  them  to  the  required  width.  Pull  up  or  hoe  out  all  weeds  and 
keep  the  ground  clean  the  rest  of  the  season.  This  applies  with  equal 
force  to  the  newly  set  bed.  A  bed  can  be  set  late  next  month  from 
young  runners.  Pinch  off  the  end  after  the  first  joint,  and  allow  it  to 
root  on  a  sod  or  in  a  small  pot  set  level  with  the  surface. 

Tomatoes.  —  For  an  early  crop  train  to  a  trellis,  pinch  off  all  side 
shoots,  and  allow  all  the  strength  to  go  to  the  main  stalk.  They  may 
also  be  trained  to  poles,  the  same  as  lima  beans,  and  can  be  set  closer 
if  grown  in  this  way.  Spray  with  the  bordeaux  mixture  for  the 
blight,  keep  the  foliage  thinned  and  the  vines  off  the  ground. 

Turnips.  —  Sow  for  an  early  fall  crop. 


SEASONAL   REMINDERS  511 


JULY 

Beans.  —  Sow  the  wax  sorts  for  a  succession. 

Beets.  —  Sow  Early  Egyptian  or  Eclipse  for  young  beets  next  fall. 

Blackberries. — Head  back  the  young  canes  to  3  ft.,  and  the  laterals 
also  when  they  get  longer.  They  may  be  pinched  with  the  thumb- 
nail and  finger  in  a  small  patch,  but  this  soon  makes  the  fingers  sore, 
and  when  there  are  many  bushes  to  go  over,  it  is  better  to  use  a  pair 
of  shears  or  a  sharp  sickle. 

Cabbage.  —  Set  plants  for  the  late  crop. 

Corn.  —  Plant  sweet  corn  for  succession  and  late  use. 

Cucumbers.  —  It  is  late  to  plant,  but  they  may  be  put  in  for  pickles 
if  done  before  the  Fourth.  Cultivate  those  which  are  up,  and  keep 
an  eye  open  for  bugs. 

Currants.  —  Cover  a  few  bushes  with  muslin  or  burlap  before  the 
fruit  ripens,  and  you  can  eat  currants  in  August.  Use  hellebore, 
rather  than  Paris  green,  for  the  last  brood  of  currant  worms,  and  apply 
it  as  soon  as  the  worms  appear.  There  is  little  danger  in  using  it, 
even  if  the  currants  are  ripe. 

Lettuce  seed  does  not  germinate  well  in  hot  weather.  Sow  in  a 
moist,  shaded  position  for  a  succession. 

Lima  beans.  —  Hoe  them  frequently,  and  give  assistance  to  get  on 
the  poles. 

Melons.  —  Watch  for  bugs,  and  apply  tobacco  dust  freely  around 
the  plants.  Keep  them  well  cultivated.  A  hght  application  of  bone 
meal  will  pay. 

Peaches,  pears,  and  plums  should  be  thinned  to  secure  fine  fruit  and 
to  help  sustain  the  vigor  of  the  tree.  Ripening  the  seed  is  what  draws 
on  the  tree's  vitality,  and  if  the  number  of  seeds  can  be  reduced  one- 
half  or  two-thirds,  part  of  the  strength  required  to  ripen  them  will 
go  into  perfecting  the  fruit  and  seeds  left,  and  add  greatly  to  the  fine 
appearance,  flavor,  and  quality  of  the  edible  portion. 

Radishes.  —  Sow  the  early  kinds  for  a  succession,  and  toward  the 
end  of  the  month  the  winter  sorts  may  be  put  in. 

Raspberries.  —  Pinch  back  the  canes  to  2|  ft.,  the  same  way  as 
given  for  blackberries. 

Squashes.  —  Keep  the  ground  well  stirred,  and  use  tobacco  dust 


512  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

freely  for  bugs  and  beetles.     Cover  the  joints  with  fresh  soil,  to  guard 
against  injury  by  the  vine-borer. 

AUGUST 

Beets.  —  A  last  sowing  of  the  early  table  sorts  may  be  made  for  a 
succession. 

Cabbage.  —  Harvest  the  early  crop,  and  give  good  cultivation  to 
the  main  crop.     Keep  down  the  bugs  and  worms. 

Celery.  —  The  latest  crop  may  yet  be  set.  Earlier  set  plants  should 
be  handled  as  they  attain  sufficient  size.  Common  drain  tiles  are  ex- 
cellent for  blanching  if  one  has  them,  and  must  be  put  on  when  the 
plants  are  about  half  grown.  Hoe  frequently  to  keep  the  plants 
growing. 

Onions.  —  Harvest  as  soon  as  the  bulbs  are  w^ell  formed.  Let  them 
lie  on  the  ground  until  cured,  then  draw  to  the  barn  floor  or  some 
other  airy  place  and  spread  thinly.  Market  when  you  can  get  a  good 
price,  and  the  sooner  the  better. 

Tomatoes  may  be  hastened  in  coloring  by  being  picked  just  as  they 
begin  to  color  and  placed  in  single  layers  in  a  coldframe  or  hotbed, 
where  they  can  be  covered  with  sash. 

SEPTEMBER 

In  many  parts  of  the  North  it  is  not  too  late  to  sow  rye,  or  peas, 
or  corn,  to  afford  winter  protection  for  orchards.  As  a  rule,  very  late 
fall  plowing  for  orchards  is  not  advisable.  Now  is  a  good  time  to  trim 
up  the  fence-rows  and  to  burn  the  brush  piles,  in  order  to  destroy  the 
breeding  places  of  rabbits,  insects,  and  weeds.  Cuttings  of  goose- 
berries and  currants  may  be  taken.  Use  only  the  wood  of  the  current 
year's  growth,  making  the  cuttings  about  a  foot  long.  Strip  off  the 
leaves,  if  they  have  not  already  fallen,  tie  the  cuttings  in  large  bundles, 
and  bury  them  in  a  cold  cellar,  or  in  a  sandy,  well-drained  knoll;  or 
if  the  cutting-bed  is  well  prepared  and  well  drained,  they  may  be 
planted  immediately,  the  bed  being  well  mulched  upon  the  approach 
of  winter.  September  and  October  are  good  months  in  which  to  set 
orchards,  provided  the  ground  is  well  prepared  and  well  drained,  and 
is  not  too  much  exposed  to  sweeping  winds.     Wet  lands  should  never 


SEASONAL    REMINDERS  513 

be  set  in  the  fall ;  and  such  lands,  however,  are  not  fit  for  orchards. 
Strawberries  may  still  be  set;    also  bush  fruits. 

Seeds  of  various  flowers  may  now  be  sown  for  winter  bloom,  if  one 
has  a  conservatory  or  good  window.  Petunias,  phloxes,  and  many 
annuals  make  good  window  plants.  Quicker  results  are  secured, 
however,  if  border  plants  of  petunias  and  some  other  things  are  dug 
up  just  before  frost  and  placed  in  pots  or  boxes.  Keep  them  cool  and 
shaded  for  a  couple  of  weeks,  cut  down  the  tops,  and  they  will  send 
up  a  vigorous  and  floriferous  growth.  Winter  roses  should  now  be 
in  place  in  the  beds  or  in  pots. 

There  will  be  odd  days  when  one  can  go  to  the  woods  and  fields  and 
collect  roots  of  wild  herbs  and  shrubs  for  planting  in  the  yard  or  along 
the  unused  borders  of  the  garden. 

OCTOBER 

Asparagus.  —  Old  plantations  should  now  be  cleaned  off,  and  the 
tops  removed  at  once.  This  is  a  good  time  to  apply  manure  to  the  beds. 
For  young  plantations,  which  may  be  started  now  as  well  as  in  spring, 
select  a  warm  soil  and  sunny  exposure,  and  give  each  plant  plenty 
of  room.  We  like  to  set  them  in  rows  5  ft.  apart  and  at  least  2  ft. 
apart  in  the  rows. 

Cabbages.  —  The  heads  that  will  winter  best  are  those  just  fully 
formed,  not  the  over-ripe  ones.  For  family  use,  bury  an  empty  barrel 
in  a  well-drained  spot,  and  fill  it  with  good  heads.  Place  a  lot  of  dry 
leaves  on  top,  and  cover  the  barrel  so  that  it  will  shed  rain.  Or,  pile 
some  cabbages  in  a  corner  of  the  barn  floor  and  cover  them  with  enough 
straw  to  prevent  solid  freezing.     Pages  159,  470. 

Cabbage-plants,  started  from  seed  last  month,  should  be  pricked 
out  in  cold-frames,  putting  about  600  to  the  ordinary  sash  and  setting 
them  quite  deep. 

Chicory.  —  Dig  what  is  wanted  for  salad,  and  store  it  in  sand  in  a 
dry  cellar. 

Endive.  —  Blanch  by  gathering  up  the  leaves  and  tying  them  lightly 
at  the  tips. 

General  garden  management.  —  The  only  planting  that  can  be  done 
in  open  ground  at  this  time  is  restricted  to  rhubarb,  asparagus,  and 
2l 


514  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

perhaps  onion-sets.  Begin  to  think  about  next  year's  planting,  and 
to  malie  arrangements  for  the  manure  that  will  be  needed.  Often 
you  can  purchase  it  now  to  good  advantage,  and  haul  it  while  the  roads 
are  yet  good.  Clean  up  and  plow  the  ground  when  the  crops  are 
harvested. 

Lettuce.  —  Plants  to  be  wintered  over  should  be  set  in  frames  like 
cabbage-plants. 

Onions.  —  Plant  sets  of  Extra  Early  Pearl,  or  some  other  hardy 
kind,  in  the  same  fashion  as  in  early  spring.  They  are  likely  to  winter 
well,  and  will  give  an  early  crop  of  fine  bunching  onions.  For  the 
North,  fall  sowing  of  onion-seed  cannot  be  recommended. 

Parsley.  —  Lift  some  plants  and  set  them  in  a  coldframe  4  or  5 
in.  apart,  or  in  a  box  filled  with  good  soil,  and  place  in  a  light  cellar 
or  under  a  shed. 

Pears.  —  Pick  the  winter  sorts  just  before  there  is  danger  from 
freezing.  Put  them  in  a  cool,  dark  place,  where  they  will  neither 
mold  nor  shrivel.  To  hasten  ripening,  they  may  be  brought  into  a 
warm  room  as  wanted. 

Rhubarb.  —  If  plants  are  to  be  set  or  replanted  this  fall,  enrich  the 
ground  w4th  a  superabundance  of  fine  old  stable-manure,  and  give 
each  plant  a  few  feet  of  space  each  way.  In  order  to  have  fresh  pie- 
plant in  winter,  dig  up  some  of  the  roots  and  plant  them  in  good 
soil  in  a  barrel  placed  in  the  cellar. 

Siveet-potatoes.  —  Dig  them  when  ripe  after  the  first  frost.  Cut 
off  the  vines,  and  turn  the  potatoes  out  with  a  potato-fork  or  plow. 
Handle  them  carefully  to  prevent  bruising.  Only  sound,  well-ripened 
roots  are  in  proper  condition  to  be  wintered  over. 

NOVEMBER 

Asparagus.  —  Manure  before  winter  sets  m. 

Beets.  —  They  keep  best  in  pits.  Some  may  be  kept  in  the  cellar 
for  use  during  winter,  but  cover  them  with  sand  or  sods  to  prevent 
shriveling. 

Blackberries.  —  Cut  away  the  old  wood  and  mulch  the  roots. 
Tender  sorts  should  be  laid  down  and  lightly  covered  with  soil  at  the 
tips. 


SEASONAL   REMINDERS  515 

Carrots.  —  Treat  as  advised  for  beets. 

Celery.  —  Dig  up  the  stalks,  leaving  the  roots  on,  and  stand  them 
close  together  in  a  narrow  trench,  tops  just  even  with  the  ground-level. 
Gradually  cover  them  with  boards,  earth,  and  manure.  Another  way- 
is  to  set  them  upright  upon  the  floor  of  a  damp  cellar  or  root-house, 
keeping  the  roots  moist  and  the  tops  dry.  Celery  can  stand  some 
frost,  but  not  exposure  to  less  than  22°  F.  The  stalks  intended  for 
use  before  Christmas  may  in  most  localities  be  left  outdoors,  to  be  used 
as  wanted.  Should  cold  weather  set  in  early,  they  will  need  covering 
in  some  way.     Page  475. 

Orchard  management.  —  Young  trees  should  have  a  mound  of  earth 
raised  around  the  stem  as  a  support  and  protection  against  mice,  etc. 
Small  and  lately  planted  trees  may  have  stakes  set  beside  them,  and 
be  tied  to  the  stakes  with  a  broad  band.  Apple  and  pear  trees  may 
yet  be  planted.  Trim  superfluous  or  unhealthy  wood  out  of  the  old 
orchards. 

Spinach.  —  Cover  the  beds  lightly  with  leaves  or  litter  before  win- 
ter sets  in. 

Strawberries.  —  Soon  it  will  be  time  to  mulch  the  beds.  Provide 
marsh  hay,  or  other  coarse  litter,  free  from  weed-seeds,  and  when  the 
ground  has  frozen  an  inch  or  so,  spread  it  all  over  the  surface  thinly 
and  evenly. 

DECEMBER 

Cabbages.  —  Plants  in  coldframes  should  be  aired  freely  and  kept 
cool.  Heads  intended  for  winter  and  spring  use,  if  not  yet  taken  in  or 
protected  from  severe  freezing,  must  now  be  cared  for.  Do  not  cover 
them  too  deeply,  nor  store  them  in  too  warm  a  place. 

Carrots.  —  Store  them  in  cellars  or  pits.  If  in  cellars,  keep  the 
roots  covered  with  sand  or  sod,  to  prevent  wiltingi 

General  garden  management.  —  Begin  now  to  make  your  plans  for 
next  season's  work.  Carefully  study  up  the  matter  of  rotation,  also 
that  of  feeding  your  crops  in  the  most  effective  and  economical  manner. 
Repair  frames,  sashes,  and  tools.  Clear  up  the  garden  and  premises. 
Underdrain  where  needed.  Beds  for  early  vegetables  should  be  thrown 
up  in  high,  narrow  ridges,  with  deep  furrows  between.  This  will 
enable  you  to  plant  them  several  days  or  weeks  earlier  than  otherwise. 


516     .  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Kale.  —  In  very  exposed  or  northern  locations  cover  it  lightly 
with  coarse  litter. 

Onions.  —  For  winter  storage  select  only  well-ripened,  perfectly 
dry  bulbs.  Store  them  in  a  dry,  airy  place,  not  in  the  cellar.  They 
may  be  spread  out  thinly  on  the  floor,  away  from  the  walls,  allowed  to 
freeze  solid,  and  then  covered  several  feet  deep  with  hay  or  straw. 

Parsnips.  —  Take  up  some  roots  for  winter  use  and  store  them  in 
sand  in  the  cellar. 

Strawberry-beds  should  be  given  their  winter  covering  of  marsh 
hay,  etc.,  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  frozen  solid. 


SUGGESTIONS  AND  REMINDERS.  — II.  FOR  THE  SOUTH 

JANUARY 

Annuals.  —  All  kinds  of  hardy  annuals  and  perennials,  such  as 
alyssum,  snapdragon,  foxglove,  hollyhock,  phlox,  poppy,  pansy, 
lobelia,  candytuft,  sweet  pea,  Chinese  pink,  sweet  william,  larkspur, 
foliage  cinerarias,  centaurea,  mignonette,  and  many  others  of  the  same 
class  may  be  sown.  Most  of  them  should  be  sown  thinly  and  where 
they  are  intended  to  flower,  as  they  transplant  poorly  in  this  latitude. 

Cannas,  caladiums,  'perennial  phloxes,  chrysanthemums,  and  verbenas 
may  be  taken  up,  divided,  and  replanted. 

Roses  may  be  planted  in  quantities.  Let  the  ground  intended  for 
them  have  a  thorough  dressing  of  manure.  Occasionally  a  plant  may 
be  taken  up  and  divided.  The  hybrid  varieties  may  now  be  layered. 
This  is  done  as  follows  :  Select  a  shoot  and  bend  it  flat  upon  the  ground  ; 
hold  it  in  both  hands,  having  a  distance  of  about  6  in.  between  them ; 
keep  the  left  hand  firm,  and  with  the  right  give  the  shoot  a  sharp 
twist;  now  cover  it  with  4  in.  of  earth  and  tie  the  free  end  to  an 
upright  stake. 

Asparagus  beds  should  be  liberally  manured.  New  beds  should  now 
be  made.     Set  the  plants  6  in.  deep.     Sow  seed  now. 

Beets  and  all  hardy  vegetables  (carrots,  parsnips,  turnips,  rutabagas, 
kohlrabi,  spinach,  lettuce,  herbs,  etc.)  may  now  be  sown,  planted,  or 
transplanted. 


SEASONAL   REMINDERS  517 

Cabbage  plants  should  be  set  out  on  heavily  manured  ground. 
Sow  seed  of  Early  Summer  for  a  later  supply. 

Fruits. —  If  possible,  all  planting  and  transplanting  of  fruit-trees 
and  grape-vines  should  be  finished  this  month.  Pruning  should  be 
completed  as  soon  as  possible,  and  preparation  made  to  protect  the 
blossoms  of  tender  fruits  next  month.  Set  out  strawberry-plants,  and 
during  dry  weather  run  the  cultivator  through  all  old  beds  that  are 
at  all  weedy.  It  is  a  good  plan,  where  practicable,  to  mulch  the  beds. 
Here,  pine-straw  can  be  had  plentifully  for  the  purpose.  Examine 
peach  trees  for  borers.  Raspberries  and  blackberries  should  be  pruned 
now  if  the  work  is  not  already  done.  Cuttings  of  Le  Conte  pears, 
Marianna  plums,  grape-vines,  and  pomegranates  should  be  put  in  at 
once  if  they  have  heretofore  been  forgotten.  Root-grafting  should  be 
progressing  rapidly ;  this  is  the  best  time  for  this  important  work. 

Onion  seeds.  —  Sow  at  once,  and  plant  sets  as  soon  as  possible. 

Peas.  —  Sow  early  and  late  varieties.  The  late  varieties  succeed 
best  if  sown  at  this  season. 

Seasonable  work.  —  This  is  a  good  month  to  obtain  canes  for  staking 
peas,  tomatoes,  and  beans,  hauling  manure,  making  repairs,  and  ex- 
amining tools,  etc.  As  the  fall  crop  is  harvested,  the  land  should  be 
prepared  for  another  crop.  Tile-draining  is  now  is  order.  Prepare 
frames  to  cover  with  canvas  for  use  next  month. 

Sweet-potatoes.  —  A  few  may  be  bedded  in  a  frame  from  which  to 
obtain  "draws"  for  setting  out  about  March  15. 

Tomatoes,  egg-plants,  and  peppers.  —  Sow  now  on  a  slight  hotbed. 
When  the  plants  come  up,  all  the  air  possible  should  be  given  during 
the  day.  They  can  be  raised  without  heat,  but  at  this  season  this  plan 
would  better  be  attempted  only  by  the  skillful. 

FEBRUARY 

Asters,  cannas,  dahlias,  heliotropes,  lobelias,  petunias,  pyrethrums, 
ricinus,  salvias,  and  verbenas  are  best  sown  in  a  coldframe,  where  they 
can  have  some  protection  from  heavy  rain. 

Cannas  should  be  transplanted  now. 

Chrysanthemums  must  be  planted  in  well-manured  ground  in  a 
position  where  water  can  be  readily  supplied  to  them. 


518  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

Dahlias  may  be  taken  up  and  divided  as  soon  as  they  begin  growth. 

Gladiolus  and  tuberose  bulbs  should  be  planted  now.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  extend  the  planting  through  March  and  April. 

Pansies.  —  Plant  them  out  in  the  beds  where  they  are  to  flower. 

Routine  work.  —  Sodding  should  now  proceed  rapidly.  If  sods  can- 
not be  obtained,  the  ground  may  be  planted  with  Bermuda  grass. 
Plant  small  pieces  of  the  grass  a  foot  apart  and  water  them  if  the 
weather  is  dry,  and  they  will  grow  rapidly.  Hedges  should  be  cleared 
up  and  put  in  good  shape.  All  planting  of  trees  and  shrubs  should  be 
finished  this  month.  All  pruning  of  trees  must  be  done  early  in 
the  month.  Young  roses  cannot  be  set  too  early  in  February.  They 
thrive  best  when  planted  in  fall.  Roll  the  drives  and  repair  them  when 
necessary.  The  lawn  will  now  require  constant  care,  and  the  mower 
should  be  used  before  the  grass  becomes  1^  in.  high. 

Bush-beans  may  be  planted  February  14.  On  alluvial  land  it  is  best 
to  plant  them  on  slight  rises  as  a  protection  against  the  rains  which 
sometimes  occur  toward  the  end  of  the  month.  If  frost  should 
threaten  just  as  the  beans  begin  to  peep  out,  cover  them  an  inch  deep 
with  the  plow  or  hand  cultivator.  Sow  Early  Mohawk  first,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  month  sow  Early  Valentine ;  a  week  later  sow  the  wax 
varieties. 

Cabbage.  —  Sow  early  varieties,  such  as  Early  Summer,  Early 
Drumhead,  and  Early  Flat  Dutch.  Etampes,  Extra  Early  Express, 
and  Winnigstadt  sown  for  small  heads  in  the  order  named  have  done 
very  well  in  southern  Louisiana.  The  earlier  sown  plants  should 
be  transplanted  as  often  as  convenient.  Should  worms  cause  trouble, 
dust  the  plants  with  a  mixture  of  one  part  of  pyrethrum  powder 
to  six  of  fine  dust. 

Carrots,  celery,  beets,  endive,  kohlrabi,  onion  sets,  parsley,  parsnips, 
radishes  and  purple-top  turnips  must  now  be  sown. 

Corn.  —  Plant  Extra  Early  Adams,  Yellow  Canada,  Stowell  Ever- 
green, and  White  Flint  toward  the  middle  of  the  month.  Sow  again 
a  week  later,  and  again  after  another  week.  If  the  first  two  sowings 
fail,  the  last  one  will  gi\'e  the  early  crop. 

Cucumbers.  —  Sow  and  protect  with  small  boxes  during  cold  days 
and  nights,  or  sow  in  pots  or  on  sods.  Protect  the  seedlings  with  sashes 
or  canvas,  and  plant  them  out  late. 


SEASONAL   REMINDERS  519 

Lettuce.  —  Sow  seeds  and  transplant  the  plants  on  hand.  This 
crop  requires  a  soil  well  supplied  with  plant-food. 

Melons.  —  Plant  seeds  in  the  same  manner  as  advised  for  cu- 
cumbers. 

Okra.  —  Sow  seeds  on  sods  and  set  out  the  plants  next  month. 

Peas.  —  Sow  seeds  of  a  number  of  varieties. 

Peppers  and  egg-plants,  if  not  sown  last  month,  should  be  sown  now. 
Sow  them  under  glazed  sashes  and  keep  close.  When  the  plants  appear, 
give  some  air,  and  increase  it  according  to  the  weather.  If  a  large 
number  of  plants  is  required,  the  sowing  may  be  delayed  until  next 
month.  Should  flea-beetles  trouble  you,  use  plenty  of  bordeaux  on 
egg-plants. 

Potatoes,  Irish.  —  The  main  crop  should  be  planted  as  early  as 
possible.     Standard  varieties  are  Early  Rose,  Peerless,  and  Burbank. 

Strawberries.  —  Run  the  cultivator  through  them  at  least  once 
every  three  weeks;  if  they  are  to  be  mulched,  collect  the  necessary 
material.  Strawberries  planted  in  February  seldom  yield  much  of 
a  crop. 

Sweet-potatoes,  can  now  be  bedded  and  protected  with  canvas,  or 
a  row  or  two  of  whole  tubers  may  be  planted  for  "  draws  "  and  vines. 

Tomatoes  in  frames  should  be  given  all  the  air  and  light  possible  and 
plenty  of  room  •  if  protected  with  canvas,  do  not  allow  the  plants  to 
crowd. 

MARCH 

Beans.  —  Sow  all  varieties  for  a  fall  crop.  As  soon  as  the  plants 
appear,  the  cultivator  must  be  run  through  the  crop,  and  kept  going 
as  often  as  necessary. 

Corn.  —  Continue  to  plant ;  and  we  recommend  harrowing  the 
patch  as  soon  as  the  young  corn  appears.  It  is  generally  planted  in 
hills  3  or  4  ft.  apart,  but  better  results  will  be  obtained  by  planting 
in  drills  and  leaving  one  stalk  every  12  in. 

Cucumbers.  —  Sow  in  hills  4  ft.  apart,  using  a  liberal  quantity  of 
seed  to  each  hill.  When  the  plants  come  up,  thin  them  to  about  six 
in  the  hill.  When  the  plants  begin  to  get  rough  leaves,  pull  out  one 
or  two  more  from  each  hill.  Striped  cucumber-beetles  are  sometimes 
very  numerous,  and  in  order  to  get  a  stand  of  plants  it  is  necessary  to 


520  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

go  through  the  patch  early  every  morning  and  sprinkle  all  the  hills 
with  air-slaked  lime. 

Egg-plants.  —  Toward  the  end  of  the  month  the  plants  growing  in 
frames  may  be  transplanted  to  their  fruiting  quarters.  Seed  may  be 
sown  outside  after  March  15 ;  sooner  if  a  warm  and  sheltered  spot  is 
selected. 

Lettuce.  —  Sow  in  drills,  and  when  the  plants  are  large  enough,  thin 
to  a  foot  apart.     If  transplanted  at  this  season,  they  often  go  to  seed. 

Okra.  —  A  sowing  may  be  made  now,  but  the  main  planting  would 
best  be  deferred  until  after  March  15.  Sow  in  drills  3  ft.  apart  and 
thin  the  plants  to  18  in.  apart  in  the  drills. 

Peas.  —  Early  varieties  may  be  sown ;  it  is  now  too  late  to  sow  tall- 
growing  kinds. 

Peppers.  —  Treat  as  advised  for  egg-plants. 

Potatoes,  Irish.  —  It  is  not  too  late  to  plant  them,  but  the  sooner 
they  are  planted  the  better.  The  crop  planted  in  February  should  be 
harrowed  as  soon  as  the  shoots  begin  to  come  up,  and  when  the  rows 
can  be  fairly  seen,  the  cultivator  must  be  set  to  work  to  keep  down 
weeds  and  grass. 

Squashes.  —  Plant  seed  in  hills  6  ft.  apart.  The  directions  for 
planting  melons  may  be  followed.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  pump- 
kins and  other  vegetables  of  this  kind. 

Sweet-potatoes.  —  If  slips  or  vines  are  at  hand,  they  may  be  planted 
late  in  the  month  for  the  earliest  tubers.  The  whole  potatoes  may 
be  planted  on  a  ridge  to  yield  vines  for  later  planting. 

Strawberries.  —  The  mulching  of  beds  or  row^s  should  be  no  longer 
delayed,  if  clean  and  plentiful  fruit  is  wanted. 

Tomatoes.  —  About  March  15  the  frame  plants  may  go  to  their 
fruiting  quarters.  It  is  necessary  to  use  some  judgment  in  this  mat- 
ter, as  they  may  be  killed  or  injured  by  an  April  frost.  Seed  may  be 
sown  in  the  open  ground  for  plants  for  late  fruiting.  Set  the  plants  4  ft. 
apart  each  way. 

APRIL 

Alternantheras  should  go  out  now. 

Annuals  of  all  kinds  may  still  be  sown  where  they  are  to  flower,  as 
they  transplant  with  difficulty  atj;his  season.  cr<3k6* 


SEASONAL   REMINDERS  521 

Coleuses.  —  Plant  out  in  the  beds  now.  Cuttings  root  readily, 
simply  requiring  to  be  stuck  in. 

Beans  of  all  kinds  can  be  planted,  limas  especially. 

Beets.  —  Make  another  sowing. 

Cabbage  plants  obtained  from  spring  sowings  should  be  set  out  as 
soon  as  fit.     The  ground  requires  to  be  very  rich  to  carry  this  crop. 

Cucumbers.  —  These  can  be  sown  anywhere  now. 

Corn.  —  Make  a  sowing  to  yield  roasting  ears  to  come  in  after  that 
sown  last  month. 

Okra.  —  Sow  in  drills  3  or  4  ft.  apart. 

Peas.  —  Make  a  sowing  of  early  varieties  for  the  last  time. 

Squash  {bush)  and  pumpkin  may  now  be  planted. 

Tomatoes  should  be  got  out  to  their  fruiting  quarters  as  early  in 
the  month  as  possible.     Let  them  be  set  at  least  4  ft.  apart  each  way. 

MAY 

Beans.  —  Plant  a  few  more  bush  and  pole  beans. 

Celery  may  now  be  started.  The  bed  or  box  needs  plenty  of  water, 
and  should  be  shaded  from  sun. 

Lettuce  requires  careful  handling  to  encourage  it  to  germinate. 
It  is  best  sown  in  a  box  and  kept  shaded  and  moist. 

Melons,  cucumbers,  squashes,  and  pumpkins  may  be  sown. 

Radishes.  —  Sow  the  yellow  and  white  summer  varieties. 

Remarks.  —  It  is  a  constant  struggle  with  weeds  throughout  this 
month,  and  the  cultivator  and  plow  are  ever  going.  As  the  land  be- 
comes vacant,  sow  corn  or  plant  sweet-potatoes  —  draws  or  vines. 
Sow  some  late  Italian  cauliflower.  Let  the  orchard  have  constant 
and  thorough  cultivation,  and  remove  all  unnecessary  growth  from 
the  trees  as  soon  as  they  appear.  Be  always  on  the  lookout  for  borers. 
Keep  the  strawberries  as  free  of  grass  and  coco,  or  knob-grass,  as 
possible. 

JUNE 

Beans.  —  All  kinds  may  now  be  sown. 
Cauliflower.  —  Sow  the  Italian  kinds. 

Corn.  —  Make  a  planting  at  the  beginning  of  the  month  and  again 
at  the  end. 


522  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Cucumbers.  —  Plant  a  few  more  hills.  The  plants  at  this  season 
must  be  given  plenty  of  water. 

Endive.  —  Sow,  and  attend  to  the  tying  up  of  the  plants  that  are 
of  sufficient  size. 

Melons.  —  Sow  for  a  succession  a  few  more  water  and  muskmelons. 

Okra  may  still  be  sown. 

Radishes.  —  Sow  the  summer  varieties  now. 

Squashes  and  pumpkins  may  yet  be  sown. 

Sweet-potato  vines  may  now  be  set  out  in  quantities. 

Tomatoes.  —  About  the  middle  of  the  month  sow  for  the  fall  crop. 

JULY 

Beans.  —  Bush  and  pole  beans  may  be  planted  towards  the  end  of 
the  month. 

Cabbage  and  cauliflower  may  now  be  sown,  but  the  main  sowing  should 
be  deferred  until  next  month. 

Carrots.  —  A  sowing  should  be  made. 

Celery.  —  Sow  and  transplant  what  plants  there  may  be  on  hand. 

Cucumbers.  —  These  may  be  sown  now  for  pickling. 

Endive.  —  Transplant  and  sow. 

Grapes  should  be  kept  well  tied  to  trellis,  and  unnecessary  growth 
removed,  so  that  the  wood  may  have  the  chance  of  becoming  thoroughly 
ripened.  If  the  cultivator  and  plow  are  not  used  judiciously,  a  second 
growth  will  be  started,  which  is  not  desirable. 

Lettuce.  —  The  seed  requires  to  be  sprouted  before  being  sown,  and 
if  the  sowing  is  done  on  a  dry  day  the  drills  should  be  watered. 

Radishes.  —  Sow  the  summer  kinds. 

Strawberries.  —  Keep  the  beds  clean  of  weeds  and  grass. 

Tomatoes.  —  Make  a  sowing  early  in  the  month,  or,  what  is  much 
better,  take  cuttings  from  plants  still  in  bearing. 

Turnips.  —  Sow  a  few  after  a  shower  towards  the  end  of  the  month. 

Remarks.  —  Much  cannot  be  done  this  month,  as  the  weather  is 
hot  and  dry,  but  the  opportunity  should  not  be  lost  for  killing  weeds 
and  preparing  for  the  planting  season,  which  is  now  rapidly  drawing 


SEASONAL   REMINDERS  523 


AUGUST 

Artichokes.  —  Seed  of  the  Green  Globe  may  be  sown  now  and  large 
plants  obtained  by  spring.     The  seed-bed  requires  to  be  shaded. 

Bush  beans,  beets,  pole  beans,  carrots,  celery,  endive,  kohlrabi,  lettuce, 
mustard,  Black  Spanish  and  Rose  China  radishes,  parsley,  turnips, 
rutabagas,  and  salad  plants  of  all  kinds  may  now  be  sown.  The  seed 
should  be  sown  on  small  ridges,  adaptable  to  the  kind  of  plants, 
for  level  culture  is  not  successful  in  the  vegetable  garden  in  this  section. 

Broccoli  should  be  more  grown,  for  it  is  hardier  than  the  cauli- 
flower.    Many  cannot  tell  the  difference  between  the  two.     Sow  now. 

Cabbages  must  be  sown  by  the  middle  of  the  month.  Make  the 
ground  very  rich  and  shade  the  seed-bed,  keeping  it  moist  during  the 
whole  of  the  time. 

Cauliflower  should  also  be  sown. 

Potatoes,  Irish,  should  be  planted  by  the  middle  of  the  month,  if 
possible.  Plant  only  those  that  have  sprouted,  and  instead  of  planting 
on  top  of  the  ridge  set  in  the  furrow  and  cover  2  in.  deep ;  as  the 
potatoes  grow,  work  more  soil  down  to  them. 

Salsify.  —  Sow  now  or  early  next  month. 

Shallots.  —  Plant  them  now. 

Squash.  —  Bush  kinds  may  be  planted  now  at  any  time. 

Sweet-potatoes.  —  Vines  may  still  be  set  out,  with  prospects  of 
harvesting  a  fair  crop. 

Tomatoes.  —  If  short  of  plants,  cut  off  good-sized  limbs  from  bear- 
ing plants  and  plant  them  deep.  Keep  them  moist,  and  they  will 
root  in  a  few  days.     Do  this  just  before  it  rains. 

SEPTEMBER 

Annuals  of  the  hardy  class  may  be  sown  this  month :  the  following 
list  will  assist  in  making  a  selection :  Calliopsis,  candytuft,  calendulas, 
canterbury  bells,  columbine,  corn-flower,  daisies,  forget-me-nots, 
gaillardia,  godetia,  larkspur,  Limnanthes  Douglasii,  mignonette,  pansies, 
Phlox  Drummondii,  primroses,  poppies  of  all  kinds,  Saponaria  Cala- 
brica,  Silene  pendula,  sweet  williams,  and  sweet  peas. 

Sulbs.  —  Study  the  catalogues  and  make  out  your  wants,  for  it 
is  nearing  planting  time. 


524  MANUAL   OF   GARDENING 

Lilies.  —  If  success  is  required  of  the  St.  Joseph's  or  Virgin  lily 
(L.  candidum),  it  must  be  planted  right  away. 

Perennials  and  biennials  should  be  sown  early  this  month.  They 
have  two  good  growing  months  ahead  of  them  yet  to  make  considerable 
progress.  The  seed-bed  will  require  shade  during  the  middle  of  the 
day  until  the  young  plants  come  up;  frequent  weedings  will  be  re- 
quired, as  coco  has  not  yet  quit  growing,  and  winter  weeds  are  now 
putting  in  an  appearance. 

Remarks.  —  All  plants  used  for  salad  purposes  may  be  sown  this 
month.  The  ground  between  the  rows  of  growing  crops  should  be 
kept  in  a  fine,  friable  condition.  Vegetable  seeds  of  all  kinds  should 
always  be  sown  on  slight  ridges  on  all  but  very  sandy  soils.  If  the 
seed  is  sown  on  a  level  bed,  as  practiced  at  the  North,  the  ground  will 
become  as  hard  as  a  turnpike  road  should  a  heavy  rain  occur ;  and 
should  this  shower  come  along  before  the  plants  are  up,  a  crust  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  deep  will  be  formed,  and  the  plants  will  never  see 
daylight.  Sown  on  a  ridge  they  come  all  right,  as  the  water  gradually 
drains  away,  leaving  the  top  of  the  ridge  loose  and  soft. 


OCTOBER 

All  spring  flower  seeds  should  be  sown  in  boxes  or  trays  in  the  con- 
servatory, and  all  spring  bulbs  should  be  planted.  The  hyacinth, 
narcissus,  tulip  and  anemone,  ranunculus  and  various  lily  bulbs, 
will  bloom  in  good  season  planted  at  this  time.  The  bedding  plants 
should  be  carefully  watched,  so  that  any  attack  of  aphis  may  be 
treated  immediately.  Sweet  peas  may  be  planted  the  first  of  this 
month,  although  they  are  commonly  sown  in  September.  A  rich 
spot  should  be  selected  for  them.  This  is  the  time  to  make  the  new 
lawn.  The  soil  should  be  thoroughly  stirred  and  well  pulverized, 
mixing  in  a  good  dressing  of  commercial  fertilizer,  or,  if  one  prefers  it, 
a  mixture  which  may  be  made  at  home,  consisting  of  cotton-seed 
meal,  acid  phosphate,  and  sulfate  of  potash,  at  the  rate  of  1000  lb., 
300  lb.,  and  100  lb.  respectively,  per  acre.  A  rich,  well-rotted  com- 
post, as  a  top  dressing,  would  also  be  highly  beneficial.  Roses  pruned 
late  in  September  or  early  this  month  will  produce  fine  winter  blooms. 

In  the  garden  this  is  a  busy  month ;  some  of  the  winter  vegetables 


SEASONAL   REMINDERS  525 

are  growing,  and  others  should  be  sown.  The  bud  artichokes  should 
be  separated  and  set  fully  3  ft.  apart.  Onions  may  still  be  sown  in 
the  early  part  of  the  month,  and  shallots  should  be  divided  and  set. 
Some  beans  may  be  risked,  and  English  peas  sown  for  winter  crop. 
A  few  cauliflowers  may  be  tried  and  cucumbers  planted  in  pots  for 
the  hotbeds  next  month.  The  following  vegetables  should  be  sown : 
Carrots,  corn  salad,  chervil,  Brussels  sprouts,  broccoli,  beets,  endive, 
kohlrabi,  kale,  lettuce,  leeks,  mustard,  parsley,  parsnip,  radish, 
roquette,  spinach,  Swiss  chard,  salsify.  Some  cabbage  and  a  few 
cauliflowers  should  be  added  to  the  list.  Turnips  should  be  sown  for 
succession  every  two  weeks  until  April  or  May.  The  celery  should  be 
kept  growing  and  banking  up  commenced. 

This  is  an  excellent  time  to  plant  the  new  strawberry  bed.  Make 
the  bed  rich  with  well-rotted  manure  and  select  good,  healthy  sets. 
The  Michel's  Early  and  Cloud  are  probably  the  most  popular  va- 
rieties for  general  planting,  and  should  be  set  in  alternating  rows. 

NOVEMBER 

Flower  seeds  and  bulbs  may  be  planted  this  month  of  the  same 
varieties  as  in  October.  Cuttings  of  all  the  herbaceous  plants  should 
be  made  and  potted,  for  use  in  the  house  and  for  the  borders  next 
season.  The  coldframes  should  also  be  put  in  order.  Some  of  the 
bulbs  for  winter  forcing  should  be  selected  and  potted.  One  of  the 
best  Louisiana  gardeners  recommends  the  following  treatment  : 
Select  good,  strong  bulbs  and  plant  them  in  rich,  light  soil,  in  5-in. 
pots,  covering  them  about  half  an  inch.  Water  well  and  bury  the  pots 
6  or  8  in.  deep  in  the  ground,  leaving  them  there  about  five  weeks, 
when  the  bulbs  will  be  found  to  be  well  rooted.  From  this  time  gradu- 
ally expose  to  the  light,  and  they  will  soon  put  forth  blooms. 

The  same  vegetables  may  be  sown  as  for  October,  and  the  late  cab- 
bage seed  planted.  The  Flat  Dutch  and  Drumhead  strains  are  prime 
favorites.  New  sowings  of  peas,  turnips,  mustard,  and  radishes  should 
be  made,  and  the  hotbeds  prepared  and  set  out  to  cucumbers.  Too 
much  care  cannot  be  taken  that  the  manure  should  be  in  the  best  con- 
dition possible,  so  that  a  good  supply  of  heat  may  be  depended  upon. 
The  cucumbers  planted  last  month  will  be  ready  now  for  setting  in  the 
hotbeds,  and  a  winter  crop  forced. 


526  MANUAL    OF   GARDENING 

Orchard  and  vineyard  planting.  —  This  is  the  time  to  prepare  land. 
That  on  which  a  late  crop  of  cowpeas  has  grown  is  well  suited  for  the 
purpose,  and  should  be  plowed  deeply  and  well  worked  over.  Towards 
the  last  of  the  month  it  should  be  cultivated  again,  in  order  to  be  ready 
for  the  trees  next  month. 

DECEMBER 

Lawns  and  yards  need  watching  this  month,  and  attention  should 
be  paid  to  the  old  leaves  and  fall  rubbish,  which  makes  the  yard  look 
untidy.  A  good  place  for  the  leaves  is  the  compost  heap.  Hedges 
should  be  put  in  shape  and  the  surface  drains  kept  open.  Shrubs 
and  roses  should  be  pruned  for  an  early  supply  of  flowers.  The  Ca- 
mellia Japonicas  are  now  in  bloom,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
small  branches  are  not  torn  off,  instead  of  being  cut  properly.  Many 
of  these  most  beautiful  of  southern  ornamental  trees  have  been  ruined 
by  careless  plucking  of  flowers. 

Garden  and  orchard.  —  Many  of  the  fall  vegetables  may  be  sown  this 
month  and  others  sown  for  a  succession.  Peas,  spinach,  roquette, 
radishes,  lettuce,  endive,  and  some  Early  York  cabbage  should  also  be 
sown.  In  the  old  spent  hotbeds,  tomatoes,  peppers,  and  egg-plants 
may  be  started ;  there  will  not  be  enough  heat  to  hurry  them,  and 
good,  strong  stocky  plants  will  be  secured  if  care  is  taken.  Irish 
potatoes  may  be  risked,  should  there  be  a  favorable  time  for  planting 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  month.  Usually  they  are  planted  in 
January.  The  chances  are  about  equal  should  they  be  planted  late 
this  month.  Nuts  of  all  kinds,  both  for  budding  and  otherwise, 
should  be  planted.  Some  of  the  best  Louisiana  pecans  are  said  to 
come  true  from  seed,  and  may  be  sown  where  they  are  intended  to 
grow. 


INDEX 


The  flowering  annuals,  being  mostly  in  alphabetical  lists  (pp.  243-260),  are 
not  indexed  here. 


Abelia  gran di  flora,  306. 

abies  species,  335,  336. 

Abobra  viridiflora,  311. 

abutilons,  351, 

acacia,  rose,  300. 

acalypha,  230. 

acer,  species,  322,  323,  330. 

Achillea  Ptarmica,  269,   273. 

achyranthes,  236,  344. 

aconites,  273. 

actiaidia,  216,  308,  316. 

adiantutns,  372. 

adlumia,  310. 

Adonis   vernalis,   273. 

ffisculus  species,  293,  323. 

African  lily,  351. 

agapanthus,  351. 

agave,  364. 

Agrostemma  Coronaria,  274. 

Agrostis  nebulosa,  245. 

ailanthus,  shoots  of,  56. 

Ajuga  reptans,  267. 

akebia,  216,  308,  316. 

alder,  293,  323. 

alliums,  289. 

almond,  415. 

alpine  plants,  232. 

alstremeria,  352. 

alternanthera,  235,  237,  239. 

Althaea  frutex,  297. 

Althsea  rosea,  271. 

Alyssum  saxatile,  267. 

amarantus,  230. 

amaryllis,  352. 

Amelanchier  Canadensis,  293. 

ammoniacal  carbonate  of  copper,  197. 

ampelopsis  species,  308,  309,  314. 

andromeda,  299,  306. 

anemone,  264,  265,  269,  273,  274,  353. 

anise,  460. 

anise-tree,  306. 

annuals  for  bedding,  249. 

annuals  that  bloom  after  frost,  248. 


annuals  by  color,  246. 
annuals,  cultivation  of,  241. 
annuals  listed  by  height,  251. 
annuals  for  ribbon-beds,  248. 
annuals,  distances  apart,  256. 
Anthemis   coronaria,    344. 
Anthemis  Kelwayi,  274. 
Anthemis  tinctoria,  271. 
Antigonon  leptopus,  313. 
aphis,  198,  200. 
Apios  tuberosa,  313. 
apple,  culture  of,  416. 
apple-maggot,  199. 
apple-scab,  207,  417. 
apricot,  culture  of,  420. 
aquarium,  348. 
aquatic  plants,  230. 
aquilegias,  267,  269,  274. 
Arabis  albida,  265. 
Arabis  alpina,  274. 
Aralia  Sieboldii,  230,  354. 
araucaria,  344,  354. 
arborvitae,  221,  333,  336. 
Arbutus  Unedo,  306. 
architect's  garden,  12. 
ardisia,  306. 
aristolochia,  317. 
Arnebia  echioides,  274. 
arsenate  of  lead  formula,  193. 
artemisias,  273,  365. 
Artemisia  Stelleriana,  263. 
artichoke,  462,  463. 
Aruncus  Sylvester,  264. 
Arundo  Donax,  46,  264. 
Asclepias  tuberosa,  264,  274. 
ashes.  111. 
ash,  mountain,  329. 
ash  trees,  324,  330. 
asparagus,  461. 
asparagus  beetle,  199. 
Asparagus  medeoloides,  401. 
Asparagus  plumosus  and  tenuissimus, 
317.  344. 


527 


528 


INDEX 


asparagus  rust,  208. 

Asparagus  Sprengeri,  340. 

aspen,  326. 

asperula,  269. 

aspidistra,  340. 

asters,  native,  264,  274,  275. 

Astilbe  Japonica,  269. 

Aubrietia  deltoidea,  265. 

aucuba,  344. 

auricula,  354. 

azalea,  culture  of,  355. 

azalea  species,  293,  305,  306. 

Baccharis  halimifolia,  291,  293. 

Bacterium  tumefaciens,  ISO. 

balm,  460. 

bamboos,  230,  264. 

Baptisia  tinctoria,  264. 

basil,  460. 

baskets,  hanging,  348. 

basswood,  329. 

bay-tree,  306. 

bean,  459,  463. 

bedding,  228. 

beech,  324. 

beet,  456,  466. 

begonias,  356. 

belladonna  lily,  287,  352. 

Bellis  perennis,  265. 

Benzoin  odoriferum,  293. 

Berberi$  Aquifolium,  293. 

Berberis  Japonica,  306. 

Berberis  Thunbergii,  52,  221,  292,  293, 

306. 
Berberis  vulgaris,  51,  293. 
Bermuda  buttercup,  384. 
Bermuda-grass,  80. 
betula  species,   293,   323,   324. 
bignonia  species,  314,  315. 
billbergia,  344. 
biota,  336. 
birds,  16. 
bitternut,  325, 
bitter-sweet,  315. 
bitter-sweet,  false,  317. 
blackberries,  laying  down,  138. 
blackberry,  culture  of,  420. 
blackberry,  disease  of,  212. 
blackberry  insects,  205. 
black-rot,  209. 
bladder  nut,  302.  303. 


bleeding-heart,  267,  276. 

blister-mite,  199. 

blood  as  fertilizer,  112. 

bloodroot,  2€5. 

blue  beech,  324. 

blue-grass,  78. 

Bocconia  cordata,  263. 

bog  plants,  230. 

bolting  trees,  149. 

boltonias,  275. 

boneblack,  113. 

bone,  ground,  113. 

bordeaux  mixture,  196. 

borders,  making,  74,  222. 

borers,  199,  417. 

bougainvillea,  318. 

Boussingaultia  baselloides,  313,  344. 

bouvardia,  344. 

box,  293,  306. 

box-elder,  323. 

boxthorn,  315. 

bridge-grafting,  148. 

Bridgeman,  mentioned,  2. 

broccoU,  467. 

Bromus  brizseformis,  245. 

brooks,  treatment  of,  24,  58,  65,  232, 

broom,  306. 

brussels  sprouts,  467. 

buckthorn,  221,  299. 

budding,  151. 

bud-moth,  200. 

buffalo  berry,  302. 

Buist,  mentioned,  2. 

bulbocodium,  289. 

bulbs,  culture  of,  281. 

bulbs  in  window-garden,  345. 

burdock,  ornamental,  3. 

Burnette,  F.  H.,  quoted,  501. 

burning  bush,   296. 

button-bush,  294. 

buttercups,  tuberous,  289. 

butternut,  325. 

buttonwood,  326. 

Buxus  sempervirens,  293. 

cabbage,  culture,  457,  468. 
cabbage,  storing,  159,  470,  513,  515. 
cabbage  diseases,  208,  469. 
cabbage  insects,  200,  457,  469. 
cabbage  maggots,  187,  201,  469. 
cactus,  358. 


INDEX 


b2% 


caladium,  230,  359. 

calceolaria,  360. 

calendars,  501. 

calla,  360. 

Calla  palustris,  264. 

Callicarpa  Americana,  305. 

callirrhoe,  269. 

Calycanthus  floridus,  293,  305. 

camassia,  289, 

camellias,  306,  361. 

campanulas,  269,  272,  275. 

candytuft,  perennial,  265,  277. 

canker-worm,  201,  417. 

cannas,  361. 

capsicum,  491. 

Capsicum  frutescens,  306, 

caragana  species,  294. 

caraway,  460. 

carbolic  acid  emulsion,  194. 

carbonate  of  copper,  197. 

cardinal  flower,  272. 

cardiospermum,  310. 

carex  for  ground  cover,  86. 

carnation  rust,  208. 

carnations,  363. 

carpet-bedding,  mentioned,  7,  30,  227 

carpet-beds  described,  234. 

Carpinus  Americana,  324. 

carrot,  456,  471. 

carya  species,  325. 

Caryopteris  Mastacanthus,  291, 294, 305. 
caryota,  385. 
case-bearers,  201. 
Cassia  Marilandica,  264. 
castanea  spscies,  294,  324. 
catalpa  species,  824,  330. 
catnip,  460. 
cats,  16. 

cat-tail,  232,  264. 
cauliflower,  457,  471. 
cauliflower  diseases,  208. 
cauliflower  insects,  200. 
ceanothus,  294,  305. 
cedar,  336. 
cedrus  species,  336. 
Celastrus  scandens,  216. 
celastrus  species,  317. 
celeriac,  472. 
celery,  473. 
cellared  stock,  290. 
cellars,  158,  475. 
2m 


Celtis  occidentalis,   324,   330. 

Centrosema  Virginiana,  311. 

century  plants,  38,  364. 

cephalanthus,  291,  294. 

cephalotaxus,  336. 

Cercidiphyllum   Japonicum,   324. 

Cercis  Canadensis,  324,  330. 

cereus,  358. 

chafer,  rose,  206. 

chamsecyparis  species,  333,  336. 

chamaerops,   306,  385. 

chamomile,  271. 

chard,  475. 

cherry,  culture,  422. 

cherry  diseases,  211. 

cherry,  ornamental,  327. 

cherry  trees,  shapes  of,  43,  44. 

chervil,  476. 

chestnut,  culture  of,  433. 

chestnut  disease,  208,  321. 

chickens  in  gardens,  178. 

chickory,  476. 

Chilopsis  linearis,  305. 

China-berry,  330. 

Chinese  sacred  lily,  289,  383. 

chinquapin,  294. 

Chionanthus  Virginica,  294,  305. 

chionodoxa,  289. 

chrysanthemums,  365. 

chrysanthemums,  hardy,  273. 

chrysanthemum  disease,  209. 

Chrysanthemum  frutescens,  365. 

chrysanthemum  protection,  337. 

Chrysanthemum  uliginosum,  272,  280, 

cineraria,  367. 

Cineraria  maritima,  235. 

cinnamon  vine,  313. 

cinquefoil,  299. 

Citrus  trifoUata,  221,  306. 

cives,  477. 

Cladrastis  tinctoria,  324. 

clary,  460. 

Claytonia  Virginica,  265. 

clematis,  216,  275,  310,  311,  314,  367. 

Clethra  alnifolia,  294,  306. 

Cleyera  Japonica,  306. 

climbing  plants,  307. 

clothes-post,  55. 

club-root,  208,  469. 

Cobbett,  mentioned,  2. 

cobnuts,  433. 


630 


INDEX 


Coboea  scandens,  344. 

Coccinea  Indica,  311. 

Cocos  Weddelliana,  385. 

Codiseum,  369. 

Codlin-moth,  201,  417. 

Coffee  tree,  325. 

Coix  Lachryma,  245. 

colchicum,  284. 

coldframes,  164. 

cold  storage,  160. 

coleus,  368. 

collards,  476. 

colocasia,  230,  359. 

coltsfoot  for  banks,  216. 

columbines,  267,  269,  274. 

Colutea  arborescens,  294. 

comfrey,  216. 

compass  plant,  263. 

conifers,  discussion  on,  331. 

conservation  of  moisture,  97. 

Convallaria  majalis,  267,  275. 

Convolvulus   Japonicus   and   Sepium, 

313. 
corchorus,  298,  306. 
coreopsis  species,  275. 
coriander,  460. 
corn,  sweet,  477. 
corn  salad,  477. 
Cornus  Baileyi,  46. 
Cornus  Mas,  51. 
cornus  species,  292,  294,  295. 
corrosive  sublimate  for  scab,  190. 
Corydalis  lutea,  269. 
Corydalis  nobilis,  267. 
corylus  species,  295. 
costmary,  460. 
cotoneaster,  222,  295,  305. 
Cottonwood,  326. 
cowpea,  464. 

coxcomb  for  bedding,  230. 
crab  cactus,  359. 
crab  trees,  327. 
cranberry,  423. 
crape  myrtle,  305. 
Crataegus  species,  295. 
cress,  478. 
crocus,  368. 

crocus,  fall  blooming,  284. 
Crosby,  qvioted,  198. 
croton,  369. 
crown-galls,  180. 


crown  imperial,  289. 

cryptomeria,  336. 

cuciunber,  458,  478. 

cucumber  diseases,  209. 

cucumber  insects,  201. 

Cucumis  Anguria,  479. 

Cucumis  foetidissima  vperennius), 

312. 
Cucumis  species,  311. 
cucurbit  insects,  201. 
cultivating,  92. 
cultivators,  95. 
Cuphea,  236,  344. 
cupressus  species,  333,  336. 
curbing,  69. 
curculio,  202,  441. 
currant,  425. 
currant,  flowering,  300. 
currant,  Indian,  304. 
currant  diseases,  209. 
currant-worm,  203. 
cuttings,  118. 
cut-worms,  186,  203,  449. 
cycas,  344,  385. 
cyclamen,  370. 

Cydonia  Japonica,  52,  295,  306. 
Cydonia  Maulei,  52,  295. 
Cypress,  bald,  329. 

daffodil,  382. 

dahlia,  370. 

Dahlia  arborea  or  excelsa,  372. 

daisy,  265. 

dandelion,  479. 

daphnes,  53,  295. 

day-lily,  38. 

delphiniums,  271,  275. 

Desmodium  Canadense,  264. 

desmodium  species,  29S 

Deutzia  gracilis,  53. 

deutzia  species,  296,  306. 

dewberry,  culture  of,  426. 

dewberry  for  banks,  216. 

dewberry  insects,  205.. 

dianthus,  270,  275. 

dibbers,  123,  124. 

Dicentra  spectabilis,  267,  276. 

Dictamnus  Fraxinella,  270. 

diervillas,  296. 

dill,  460. 

dioscorea  species,  313. 


INDEX 


53] 


Dirca  palustris,  296. 
diseases  of  plants,  207. 
ditching,  88. 
dockmackie,  305. 
Dodecatheon  Meadia,  265, 
dogs  and  gardens,  178. 
dog-tooth  violet,  289. 
dogwoods,  294,  295,  330. 
Dolichos  Japonicus,  317. 
dolichos,  species,  464. 
Donnell,  Webb,  quoted,  453. 
doronicum,  265,  276. 
doucin  stocks,  409. 
Dracaena  fragrans,  344. 
drainage  of  land,  88. 
drainage  of  walks,  69. 
drives  and  walks,  67. 
dry  bouquets,  245. 
Duggar,  on  mushrooms,  484. 
dutchman's  pipe,  317. 
dwarf  fruit-trees,  409. 

Easter  lily,  346. 

echeveria,  235. 

Echinocystis  lobata,  309. 

egg-plant,  458,  480. 

Egyptian  lily,  360. 

elaeagnus  species,  51,  296,  306. 

elecampane,  263. 

elm,  329,  330. 

elm-leaf  beetle,  204. 

emulsion,  carbolic  acid,  194 ;  kerosene, 

194. 
endive,  481. 
enemies  of  plants,  178. 
enriching  the  land,  110. 
Epimedium  rubrum,  276. 
epiphyllum,  344,  359. 
Erianthus  Ravennae,  264. 
Erigeron  speciosus,  276. 
Eulalia,  230,  264. 
Euonymus,  climbing,  309,  315. 
Euonymus  species,  296,  306. 
Euphorbia,  344. 
evergreens,  discussion  on,  331. 
everlastings,  245. 
exochorda,  296,  306. 

fagus  species,  324. 

Falconer,  Wm.,  quoted,  34,  261,  484. 

Farfugium  grande,  344. 


Fatsia  Japonic  a  and  F.  papyrifera,  230, 
354. 

fennel,  460. 

ferns,  372. 

fertilizing  land,  110. 

Fessenden,  mentioned,  2. 

Festuca  glauca,  344. 

fetter  bush,  306. 

Ficus  elastica,  229,  344. 

Ficus  repens,  315. 

fig,  426. 

filberts,  295,  433. 

fir,  335. 

flame  flower,  272. 

Fletcher,  S.  W.,  quoted,  431. 

flower-garden  in  landscape,  27,  34,  225. 

foliage  in  landscapes,  37,  218. 

forcing-hill,  161. 

forcing  plants,  161. 

forget-me-nots,  266. 

formal  gardens,  12. 

formalin  for  scab,  190. 

formal  trees,  40. 

formulas  for  fungicides,  196;  in- 
secticides, 193. 

Forsythia  suspensa,  53,  216,  296; 
viridissima,  53,  216,  296,  306. 

frames,  164. 

fraxinus  species,  324. 

freesia,  373. 

fringe  tree,  294,  305. 

fritillary,  289. 

fruit-buds,  141. 

fniits,  culture  of^  408. 

fuchsia,  344,  373. 

fumigating,  188. 

fumitory,  267. 

fungi  and  insects,  178. 

fungicides,  196. 

funkia,  38,  262,  271,  272,  276. 

gaillardia,  perennial,  270,  276. 

gardenia,  306. 

Gardiner  Hepburn,  mentioned,  2. 

garlic,  456,  481. 

gas  plant,  270. 

gathering  fruit,  414. 

Gelsemium  sempervirens,  317. 

Genista  tinctoria,  297. 

geranium,  374,  386. 

gherkin,  479. 


532 


INDEX 


ginkgo,  324,  330. 

girdled  trees,  144. 

gladiolus,  374. 

Gleditschia  tricanthos,  325. 

gloxinia,  375. 

Goff  device,  187. 

goldenglow,  272,  280. 

golden-rods,  264,  272,  280. 

gooseberry,  427. 

gooseberry  disease,  209. 

goumi,  296,  306. 

gourds,  ornamental,  310,  312. 

grading,  61. 

grafting,  151. 

grafting-wax,  145. 

grape,  culture  of,  428. 

grape  diseases,  209. 

grapery,  431. 

grapes  for  ornament,  315, 

grasses,  ornamental,  245. 

grass  for  lawns,  78. 

greenbrier,  315. 

greens,  459. 

Greiver,  T.,  quoted,  501. 

Grevillea  robusta,  344,  376. 

ground-ivy,  309. 

ground-nut,  313. 

grub,  white,  207,  449. 

guards  for  trees,  143. 

gum  tree,  325,  326. 

gunnera,  230, 

gutters,  69. 

Gymnocladus  Canadensis,  325. 

Gypsophila  paniculata,  276. 

Halesia  tetraptera,  52,  297. 
Hamamelis  Virginiana,  297. 
handling  the  land,  87. 
handling  the  plants,  115. 
hand-box,  163. 
hand  tools,  101. 
hand-weeders,  106. 
hanging  baskets,  348. 
harebells,  269. 
harrows,  94. 
hazels,  295. 
Hedera  Helix,  315. 
hedges,  2E0. 
heeUng-in,  135. 
Helenium  autumnale,  276. 
helianthus  species,  263,  271,  276. 


hellebore  for  insects,  193. 

hemerocallis  species,  277. 

hemlock,  221,  335,  336. 

Henderson,  mentioned,  2. 

hepaticas,  265. 

herbaceous  perennials,  260. 

Heuchera  sanguinea,  270,  277. 

Hibiscus  Moscheutos,  262,  277. 

Hibiscus  Rosa-Sinensis,   305. 

Hibiscus  Syriacus,  297,   305. 

hickories,  325,  433. 

Hicks,  Edward,  quoted,  132. 

hicoria  species,  325. 

hippeastrum,    353. 

hitching  to  trees,  144. 

hoes,  101. 

holUes,  297,  306. 

hollyhock,  271,  376. 

hollyhock  rust,  210. 

honey  locust,  325. 

honeysuckles,  298,  306,  316. 

Hop,  311,  313. 

hop-tree,  299. 

horehound,  460. 

hornbeam,  324,  326. 

horseradish,  481. 

hotbeds,  168. 

house  plants,  341. 

howea,  385. 

hoya,  406. 

Humulus  Lupulus,  313. 

Hunn,  C.  E.,  quoted,  454. 

hyacinth,  377. 

hydrangea,  291,  297,  306. 

hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  189. 

hypericum  species,  297. 

hyssop,  460. 

Iberis  9emper\'irens,  265,  277. 
ilex  species,  297. 
lUicium  anisatum,  306. 
immediate  effect,  215. 
immortelles,  245. 
inarching,  148. 
Indian  currant,  304. 
insecticides,  193. 
insects,  remedies  for,  198. 
insects  and  fungi,  178. 
Inula  Helenium,  263. 
IpomcEa  pandurata,  313. 
Ipomoea  Quamoclit,  311. 


INDEX 


533 


iris,  264,  267,  270,  277,  278,  378. 

iron-wood,  326. 

Isolepis  gracilis,  344. 

ivy,  Boston,  Japanese,  314. 

ivy,  parlor,  340  (see  Senecio). 

ivy,  true,  315. 

jasmines,  317,  344. 

jasminum  species,  306,  317. 

Jerusalem  artichoke,  463. 

jessamine,  317. 

jonquil,  383. 

Judas  tree,  324. 

juglans  species,  325. 

June-grass,  78. 

juniper  species,  333,  334, 

kainit,  163. 
kale,  457,  482. 
Kalmia  latifolia,  297. 
katsura^tree,  324. 
keeping  fruit,  158,  414. 
Kenilworth  ivy,  313,  340,  344. 
kentia,  385. 

kerosene  emulsion,  194. 
kerria,  298,  306. 
kitchen-garden,  454. 
Kniphofia  aloides,  272. 
Koelreuteria  paniculata,  325,  330. 
kudzu  vine,  317. 

labels,  154. 
lady-birds,  199. 
lagenaria,  311. 
LagerstrcEmia  Indica,  305. 
land,  handling,  87. 
larch,  325. 
larix  species,  325. 
latania,  385. 

Lathyrus  latifolius,  311. 
laurel,  cherry,  306,  330. 
laurel,  great,  299,  391. 
laurel,  mountain,  297. 
laurel,  true,  306. 
Laurus  nobilis,  306. 
lavender,  460. 
lawn,  making,  77. 
lawns,  treatment,  82. 
leaf  cuttings,  120. 
leatherwood,  296. 
leek,  456,  483. 


Leiophyllum  buxifolium,  298. 

lespedeza  species,  298. 

lettuce,  483. 

lettuce  disease,  210. 

Liatris  spicata,  270. 

Libocedrus  decurrens,  336. 

ligustrum  species,  298. 

lilac  species,  304. 

liliums,  278,  284,  378,  285. 

lily-of-the-valley,  86,  267,  275,  381 

Uma  beans,  464. 

lime  and  sulfur  wash,  195,  539. 

Linaria  Cymbalaria,  313. 

linden,  329,  330. 

Lindera  Benzoin,  293. 

Linum  perenne,  278. 

Liquidambar  styraciflua,  325,  330. 

Liriodendron  TuHpifera,  325. 

live-oak,  330. 

liver  of  sulfur,  197. 

liver-leaf,  265. 

lizard's  tail,  264. 

Lobeha  cardinaUs,  272,  278. 

lobster  cactus,  359. 

locust,  328. 

locust,  honey,  221,  325. 

Lombardy  poplar,  40. 

Long,  E.  A.,  quoted,  223. 

Lonicera  Halliana,  53,  216. 

lonicera  species,  298,  316. 

loose-strife,  264. 

lotus,  230. 

lovage,  460. 

luff  a,  311. 

Lychnis  alpina,  265. 

Lychnis  Chalcedonica,  278. 

Lychnis  Coronaria,  274. 

Lychnis  Viscaria,  271. 

Lycium  Chinense,  315. 

lycoris,  283. 

Lysimachia  clethroides,  278. 

Lysimachia  nummularia,  86,   309. 

Lythrum  Salicaria,  264. 

madeira  vine,  313,  344. 
maggots  of  cabbage,   187,  201. 
magnolias,  306,  325,  330. 
Mahernia  odorata,  344,  345. 
mahonia,  293,  306. 
maidenhair  tree,  324. 
maize,  striped,  230. 


634 


INDEX 


mallow,  rose,  262. 

M'Mahon,  mentioned,  2. 

manure  for  hotbeds,  169. 

maples,  322,  323,  330. 

marguerite  carnations,  363. 

marguerite  chrysanthemum,  365. 

marjoram,  460. 

markers,  108. 

marshplants,  230. 

Mathews,  Schuyler,  picture  by,  31. 

matrimony  \\ne,  315. 

mats,  making,  176. 

matthiolas,  402. 

Melia  Azederach,  330. 

melon,  458,  487,  499. 

melon  disease,  210. 

melon  insects,  201. 

Menispermum  Canadense,  317. 

Mertensia  Virginica,  266. 

Mesembryanthemum,  309,  344. 

mice  injury,  144. 

mignonette,  381. 

mignonette  \'ine,  313. 

mikania,  313. 

miscanthus,  264. 

miscible  oils,  194.  [306,  330. 

mock  orange,  298,  306 ;  of  South,  221, 

mite,  black  or  spotted,  205. 

moisture,  sa\ang,  97. 

moles,  178. 

Momordica,  311. 

Monarda  didyma,  271. 

moneywort,    86,     309,    340    (see    lysi- 

machia). 
Monterey  cypress,  220. 
monthly  ad\dce,  501. 
moon-flower,  313,  381. 
moonseed,  317. 

morning-glory,  perennial,  313. 
morus  species,  326. 
mounding-up  trees,  136. 
mountain  ash,  329. 
mountain  laurel,  297. 
moving  large  trees,  130. 
muck,  111. 
Mucune  utilis,  311. 
Muehlenbeckia,  318,  344. 
mulberry,  326,  330,  432. 
mulberry,  French,  305. 
mulching  plants,  136. 
muriate  of  potash.  111,  113. 


Musa  Ensete,  229. 
mushrooms,  484. 
muskmelon,  487. 
muskmelon  disease,  210. 
mustard,  487. 
myosotis,  266,  278. 
myriophyllum,  231,  349. 
myrtle,  running,  86,  315. 
myrtle,  true,  306. 
Myrtus  communis,  306. 

narcissus,  382. 

negundo,  323. 

Nepeta  Glechoma,  309. 

Nephrolepis  exaltata,  340,  372. 

Nettle  tree,  324. 

Nicotiana,  38. 

night-blooming  cereus,  358. 

nine-bark,  298. 

nitrate  of  soda,  112,  113. 

nitrogen,  112. 

nozzles,  192. 

nuts,  433. 

Nyssa  sylvatica,  326. 

oaks,  328,  330. 

odd  plants,  40. 

(Enothera  Missouriensis,  278. 

oil  insecticides,  194. 

okra,  488. 

old-fashioned  gardens,  32,  34. 

Olea  fragrans,  306. 

oleander,  306,  383. 

oleaster,  296. 

onion,  456,  488. 

opuntia,  359. 

orange,  culture  of,  433. 

Orontium  aquaticum,  264. 

osage  orange,  221. 

osiers,  294,  295. 

Osmanthus  fragrans,  306. 

Ostrya  Virginica,  326. 

oxalis,  384. 

oxalis  for  window-gardens,  344. 

Oxalis  tropaeoloides,  235. 

Oxydendrum  arboreum,  326,  330. 

oyster  plant,  494. 

oyster-shell  scale,  204. 

paeonia :  see  peony, 
palmettoes,  306. 


INDEX 


635 


palms,  306,  384. 

palms  for  South,  306. 

pampas-grass,  230. 

pandanus,  344,  385. 

Panicum  virgatum,  264. 

pansy,  culture  of,  386. 

papavers,  270,  279. 

paper-white  narcissus,  289,  383. 

papyrus,  232. 

Paradisea  Liliastrum,  269. 

paradise  stocks,  409. 

paris  green  formula,  193. 

parrot's  feather,  231,  349. 

parsley,  490. 

parsnip,  456,  490. 

Passiflora  incarnata,  312. 

passiflora  species,  316. 

paulownia,  330. 

pavia,  293. 

pea,  459,  490. 

peach,  culture  of,  435. 

peach  diseases,  210. 

pear,  culture  of,  437. 

pear  diseases,  211. 

pear  insects,  205. 

pea-trees,  294. 

pecan,  325,  433. 

pelargonium,  386. 

Pelargonium  peltatum,  308. 

Peltandra  undulata,  264. 

pennisetum,  230,  plate  v. 

pennyroyal,  460. 

pentstemon,  270,  272,  279. 

peony,  267,  269,  279,  387. 

peppermint,  460. 

pepperidge,  326. 

pepper,  red,  458,  490. 

perennials,  cultivation  of,  260. 

Periploca  Graeca,  216,  317. 

periwinkle,  86,  309,  315. 

Phalaris  arundinacea,  264. 

Phaseolus  multiflorus,  311,  313,  464. 

phaseolus  species,  464. 

Philadelphus   coronarius   and   grandi- 

florus,  51. 
philadelphus  species,  298,  306. 
phillyreas,  306. 
phlox,  culture  of,  388. 
phlox,  perennial,  271,  279. 
Phlox  subulata,  267,  279. 
phoenix,  385. 


phosphoric  acid,  112,  113. 

photographing  landscapes,  12. 

Phragmites  communis,  264. 

physocarpus,  298. 

picea  species,  334,  335. 

picture  in  landscape,  12,  58. 

pie  plant,  493. 

Pieris    floribunda,    299,    306    (Andro. 

meda). 
Pilea  arborea,  344. 
pine,  334,  335,  336, 
pinks,  270. 

pinus  species,  334,  335,  336. 
Pittosporum,  306,  344. 
plane-tree,  326,  330. 
plan  of  grounds,  8. 
plant  diseases,  207. 
plant-lice,  198. 
platanus  species,  326. 
platycodon  grandiflonim,  272,  279. 
plows,  93. 

Plumbago  Capensis,  306. 
plum,  culture  of,  439. 
plum,  diseases,  211,  440. 
plum,  ornamental,  327. 
Poa  compressa,  78 ;  pratensis,  78 ;  tri- 

vialis,  79. 
podocarpus,  336. 
poinsettia,  306. 
polemoniums,  279. 
Polianthes  tuberosa,  404. 
polyanthus,  389. 
polj'gonums,  263,  317. 
pomegranate,  306. 
poplar,  41,  218,  326,  327. 
poppy,  Iceland,  270,  279. 
Populus  Bolleana,  218,  327. 
populus  species,  326,  327. 
Populus  tremuloides,  42. 
potash  salts.  111,  113. 
potassium  sulfide,  197. 
potato,  culture,  492. 
potato  diseases,  212. 
potato  insects,  205. 
potato  scab,  190,  212. 
potato  vine,  317. 
Potentilla  fruticosa,  299, 
Potentilla  hybrida,  279. 
pot-herbs,  459. 
prickly  ash,  305. 
Primula  Auricula,  354. 


536 


INDEX 


Primula  cortusoides,  280. 

primulas,  389. 

privets,  298,  306. 

propagating,  116,  118. 

protecting  in  winter,  135. 

Pruning,  139,  142,  149,  411. 

pruning  at  transplanting,  129. 

Prunus  Caroliniana,  221,  306,  330. 

Prunus  Laurocerasius,  306. 

prunus  species,  299,  327. 

Pseudotsuga  Douglasii,  335. 

psylla,  205. 

Ptelea  trifoliata,  299. 

pteris,  373. 

Pueraria  Thunbergiana,  317. 

pumpkin,  458,  496. 

pumps,  183,  185. 

pyracantha,  221,  292,  306. 

pyrethrum,  272,  280. 

pyrus,  species,  327. 

quercus  species,  320,  328,  330. 
quince,  culture  of,  442. 

rabbit  injury,  144. 

radish,  493. 

railroad-worm,  199. 

rainfall,  saving,  97. 

raspberry,  culture  of,  443. 

raspberry  diseases,  212. 

raspberry  insects,  205. 

ravenna  grass,  264. 

records  of  plantation,  154. 

red-bud,  324. 

red  pepper,  458,  490. 

red  spider,  205. 

red-top,  79. 

removing  large  trees,  130. 

repairing  trees,  145. 

retinosporas,  220,  221,  333,  336. 

rhamnus  species,  299. 

rhododendron,  390. 

rhododendron  species,  299,  306. 

Rhodotypos  kerrioides,  299,  306. 

rhubarb,  493. 

rhubarb,  forcing,  162. 

rhubarb  for  ornament,  39. 

Rhus  Cotinus,  291,  299,  306. 

rhus  species,  299,  300. 

Rhynchospermum  jasminoides,  317. 

Ribes  aureum,  53. 


Ribes  sanguineum,  53. 

ribes  species,  300. 

richardia,  360. 

ricinus,  230. 

rill  "improved,"  24. 

Roberts,  mentioned,  87,  93. 

robinia  species,  300,  306,  328. 

rockeries,  232. 

rollers,  108. 

root-crops,  456. 

root  cuttings,  118. 

root-galls,  180. 

Rosa  rugosa,  37,  221,  292,  300. 

rosa  species,  300,  301,  318. 

Rosa  Wichuraiana,  216,  309. 

rose  acacia,  300. 

rose,  culture  of,  391. 

rose  diseases,  213. 

rose  insects,  205. 

rosemary,  460. 

roses,  climbing,  318. 

roses  in  landscapes,  37. 

rows,  to  make  straight,   127. 

Rubus  crataegifolius,  35,  206,  301. 

Rubus  fruticosus,  53. 

Rubus  laciniatus,  53,  309. 

Rubus  odoratus,  45,  46,  301. 

Rubus  phcenicolasius,  53,  301. 

Rudbeckia  laciniata,   272,   280. 

Rudbeckia  maxima,  271,  280. 

Ruscus  aculeatus,  306. 

Russelia  juncea,  344. 

rutabaga,  498. 

rye-grass,  80. 

sacaline,  216,  263. 

sage,  460. 

salad  plants,  459. 

Salisburia  adiantifolia,  324. 

Salix  laurifolia,  219,  301,  329. 

salix  species,  301,  328,  329. 

salsify,  456,  494. 

salvia,  perennial,  37. 

Salvia  pratensis,  269. 

Sambucus  species,  291,  302. 

Sanguinaria  Canadensis,  265. 

San  Jos6  scale,  206. 

Santolina  Chamsecyparissus,  236. 

sassafras,  329. 

Saururus  cernuus,  264. 

saving  of  moisture,  97. 


INDEX 


537 


savory,  460. 

Saxifraga  peltata,  262. 

Saxifraga  sarmentosa,  344. 

Sayers,  mentioned,  2. 

Scabiosa  Caucasica,  280. 

scab  on  potatoes,  190. 

scale,  San  Jos6,  206. 

scarifiers,  105. 

Schenley  park,  34. 

Schizophragma     hydrangeoides,     309, 

316. 
school -grounds,  11. 
scilla,  283,  289. 
screens  for  wind,  219. 
screen  to  protect  against  insects,  186. 
screw  pine,   344,   385. 
scrubbing  trees,  414. 
scuppernong,  315. 
sea-kale,  495. 
sedges  for  bogs,  232. 
sedum,  340. 
seed-beds,  117. 
seedlings,  transplanting,  122. 
seed-sowing,  116. 
Selaginella  denticulata,  344. 
semper^dvum,  235. 
Senecio  macroglossus  and  mikanioides, 

340,  344. 
senna,  wild,  264. 
service-tree,  329. 
shearing,  140. 
shelter-belts,  219. 
she-oak,  376. 
shepherdia  species,  302. 
shrubs,  list  of,  292. 
shrubs,  pruning,  140. 
shrubs  for  the  South,   305. 
Sicyos  angulata,  309. 
silk  vine,  317. 

Simonds,  O.  C,  quoted,  69. 
Slingerland,  quoted,  198. 
smilax  (florists'),  340,  401. 
smilax  species,  315. 
Smith,  H.  W.,  quoted,  501. 
Smith  and  Townsend,  quoted,   180. 
sr.ioke-tree,  299,  306. 
snowball,  304,  306. 
snow-berry,  304,  306. 
snowdrop,  281,  288. 
snowflake,  289. 
St  ap  insecticides,  194. 


Socrates,  2. 

sod-cutter,  73. 

sodding,  84. 

soil,  handling,  87. 

soil  mulch,  98. 

Solanum  Dulcamara,  216,  315. 

Solanum  jasminoides,  317. 

soli  dagos,  264,  272,  280. 

Sophora  Japonica,  330. 

Sorbus  species,  329. 

sorrel,  495. 

sorrel-tree,  326. 

sourwood,  326. 

South  Carolina,  rock,  112. 

sowing  the  seeds,  116. 

sparrows,  poisoning,  18. 

Spartium  junceum,  306. 

spearmint,  460,  495. 

spider,  red,  205. 

spinach,  495. 

Spiraea  Aruncus,  264,  280. 

spireas,  221,  264,  280,  298,  302,  306. 

spraying,  190. 

spring  beauty,  265. 

spruce,  221,  334,  335. 

spuds,  107. 

squash,  458,  496. 

squash  insects,  201,  459. 

squill,  283,  288. 

stake  labels,  155. 

staphylea  species,  302,  303. 

Statice  lati  folia,  280. 

stem  cuttings,  118. 

Sterculia  platanifolia,  330. 

stevia,  344. 

Stewart,  quoted,  207. 

stink-bug,  202,  459. 

St.  John's  wort,  297. 

stocks,  402. 

storing  of  fruits  and  vegetables,   158, 

414,  475. 
strawberry,  culture  of,  445. 
strawberry  disease,  213,  449. 
strawberry  tree,  306. 
streams,    treatment    of,    24,    58,    65, 

232. 
street  trees,  repairing,  145. 
strychnine  for  sparrows,  18. 
Stuartia  pentagyna,  306. 
styrax,  303. 
subsoiling,  90. 


538 


INDEX 


subtropical   gardening,   mentioned,    7, 

229. 
sulfate  of  potash,  111,  113. 
sulfide  of  potassium,  197. 
sulfur  as  fungicide,  197. 
sumac,  299,  300. 
sunflowers,  wild,  263,  271. 
sunken  fence,  66. 
surgery,  142. 
swainsona,  344,  403. 
sweet-flag,  232. 
sweet  gum,  325,  330. 
sweet-herbs,  460. 
sweet  pea,  culture  of,  403. 
sweet  potato,  496. 
Swiss  cliard,  475. 
symphoricarpos  species,  304,  306. 
Symphoricarpus  vulgaris,  53. 
syringa,  298,  304. 
syringe,  183. 

tacsonia,  316. 

tallies,  156. 

tamarack,  325. 

tamarisk  (tamarix),  221,  291,  304. 

tankage,  112. 

tanks  for  aquatics,  230. 

tansy,  460. 

Tarryer,  tools,  103. 

Taxodium  distichum,  329. 

taxus  species,  334,  336. 

Taylor,  A.  D.,  quoted,  145. 

tecoma  species,  314. 

tennis-screen,  55. 

tent-caterpillar,  206,  417. 

terracas,  62. 

Thalictrum  aquilegifolium,  280. 

Thermopsis,  mollis,  264. 

thinning  fruit,  412. 

three  guardsmen,  25. 

Thuja  occidentalis,  333,  336. 

thyme,  460. 

Thymus  argenteus,  235. 

tilia  species,  329. 

tilling,  92. 

tobacco  insecticide,  194. 

tomato,  458,  497. 

tomato  disease,  213. 

Townsend  and  Smith,  quoted,  180. 

Trachelospermum  jasminoides,  317. 

Tracy's  garden  plan,  452. 


tradescantia,  340. 

transplanting  young  plants,  122;    ol^ 

plants,  124. 
tree  guards,  143. 

Trees,  lists  and  discussion,  319,  331 
trees,  moving  large,  130. 
tree  surgery,  142. 
trenching,  89,  90. 
trichosanthes,  311. 
trilliums,  267. 
trimming,  140. 
Tritoma  Usaria,  272. 
TroUis  Europaeus,  281. 
Tropaeolium  peregrinum,  310. 
trowels,  106. 

trumpet  creeper,  216,  314. 
tsuga  species,  335,  336. 
tuberose,  404. 
tubers,  culture  of,  281. 
tub-plants,  transplanting,  125. 
tulips,  culture  of,  405. 
tulip  tree,  325,  330. 
turnip,  498. 
Tussilago  Farfara,  216. 
typhas,  264. 

Ulmaria  Filipendula,  271,  280. 
ulmus  species,  329,  330. 
umbrella  plant,  232. 
umbrella  tree,  330. 

varnish-tree,  325. 

vegetables,  culture  of,  451. 

vegetable  oyster,  494. 

viburnum  species,  304,  305,  306. 

vigna,  464. 

vinca  major,  315. 

Vinca  minor,  86,  315,    340  (see   peri 

winkle,  myrtle). 
\anes,  307. 

violet,  culture  of,  406. 
violet  insect,  206. 
violets,  fumigating,  190. 
virgilia,  324. 

Virginia  creeper,  216,  308,  309,  314. 
Vitex  Agnus-Castus,  306. 
vitis  species,  315. 

Walker,  E.,  quoted,  234,  265. 
walks  and  drives,  67. 
walnut,  325,  433. 


INDEX 


539 


wandering  jew,  340,  344. 
washing  trees,  414. 
water  cress,  478. 
watering  hotbeds,  175. 
watering  house  plants,  347. 
watering  land,  100. 
water-lilies,  230. 
watermelon,  499. 
wax  for  grafting,  145. 
wax-plant,  406. 
wax-work,  317. 
weeders,  95,  106. 
weed-spuds,  107. 
weeping  trees,  40. 
weigela,  kinds,  296,  306. 
well  about  a  tree,  66. 
wheel-hoes,  96. 
Whetzel,  quoted,  207. 
white-fly,  207. 
white  grub,  207,  449. 
white  hellebore,  193. 
wigandia,  230, 
willows,  41,  219. 
willow,  species  of,  301,  328,  329. 
windbreaks,  219. 

wind-flowers,  264,  265,  269,  273,  274, 
353. 


window-boxes,  337. 
window -gardens,  336. 
winter  aconite,  289. 
winter  protection,  135. 
wires,  injury  by,  149. 
wire- vine,  318. 
wistaria,  316. 
witch  hazel,  297, 
witloof,  476. 
wood  ashes.  111. 
woodbine,  316. 
woodruff,  269. 
wormwood,  460. 
wormwood,  wild,  263 

Xanthoceras,  305. 

Yams,  ornamental,  313. 

yellows,  211. 

yew,  334,  336. 

Yucca  filamentosa,  262,  271. 

Yuccas,  shrubby,  306. 

zamia,  306. 

Zanthoxylum  Americanum,  305. 

zebra  grass,  264. 

Zizania  aquatica,  264. 


ADDENDUM 


Following  are  the  recent  formulas  and  advice  for  lime-sulfur  prepa- 
rations, comprising  the  concentrated  and  the  self-boiled  (continued,  in 
this  edition,  from  p.  195).  These  formulas  are  likely  to  be  modified 
somewhat  by  further  studies.    See  Manual  Fruit  Insects,  pp.  482-3. 

The  home-made  lime-sulfur  is  prepared  as  follows  (J.  P.  Stewart's 
formula) :  50  lb.  best  stone  lime  (90-95  %  calcium  oxide) ;  100  lb.  sul- 
fur (powdered  commercial,  99^  %  pure) ;  water  to  make  50  to  55  gal. 
total  product  at  finish.  Put  10  gal.  of  water  in  kettle  and  start  fire. 
Place  lime  in  kettle.  After  slaking  is  well  started,  add  the  dry  sulfur 
and  mix  thoroughly,  adding  water  enough  to  maintain  a  thin  paste, 
which  requires  about  5  gallons.  After  slaking  and  mixing  are  com- 
pleted, add  water  to  make  about  50  gallons,  bring  to  a  boil,  and  stir 
until  the  sulfury  scum  practically  disappears ;  then  add  water  to  make 
about  60  gallons  and  boil  down  to  50  or  55  gallons.    The  material 


540  ADDEND  UM 

should  be  kept  well  stirred,  especially  during  the  early  stages  of  the 
process.  The  boiling  should  continue  until  the  sulfur  granules  are  evi- 
dently dissolved,  generally  40  to  60  minutes.  Pour  or  strain  the  clear 
liquid  into  a  barrel  or  other  storage  vessel  that  can  be  completely  filled 
or  corked,  and  cut  off  air  contact  with  a  thin  layer  of  paraffin  oil,  or 
any  other  heavy  oil,  to  prevent  formation  of  crystals. 

To  test  the  concentration  of  the  commercial  and  the  home-made  solu- 
tions, secure  a  Beaume  hydrometer  at  the  drug  store,  with  a  range  of 
25  to  35  degrees.  In  testing  the  solution,  pour  some  of  the  clear  red- 
dish liquid  into  any  deep  receptacle,  deeper  than  the  hydrometer  is 
long,  and  when  full  gently  drop  the  instrument  into  the  solution  and 
wait  until  it  comes  to  rest.  Then  read  on  the  hydrometer  the  degree 
of  concentration,  which  will  be  the  one  just  at  the  surface  of  the  liquid. 
When  the  degree  of  concentration  of  the  solution  is  known,  the  proper 
dilution  may  be  obtained  by  referring  to  the  following  figures : 


Concentrate 

Testing  (degrees 

Baum§) 

Dilution  for  San 

Jose  Scale  and 

Blister  Mite 

Dilution  for 
Peach  Leaf  Curl 
(Trees  Dormant) 

Dilution  for 

Apple  (Summer 

Spray) 

Dilution  for  Pear 

and  Cherry 
(Summer  Spray) 

35 

1  toSf 

1  to  161 

1  to  43i 

1  to  56 

34 

1  toSi 

1  to  16 

1  to  42| 

Ito  54 

33 

1  to8 

1  to  15i 

1  to  41 

1  to  52 

32 

lto7i 

1  to  15 

1  to  40 

1  to  50 

31 

1  to7i 

1  to  14i 

Ito  39 

1  to  48 

30 

lto6f 

1  to  14 

1  to  m 

1  to  46 

29 

lto6i 

1  to  13i 

Ito  36 

1  to  44 

28 

1  to  6 

1  tol3 

Ito  35 

Ito  42 

27 

lto5f 

1  to  12i 

1  to  33^ 

1  to  40i 

26 

ItoSi 

1  tol2 

1  to  32i 

1  to  3S| 

25 

1  to5 

Ito  11 

Ito  31 

Ito  37 

Arsenate  of  lead  may  be  added  to  the  diluted  concentrate  at  the  rate 
of  from  2  to  3  pounds  to  50  gallons.  Paris  green,  arsenite  of  lime,  or 
arsenite  of  soda,  should  not  be  used  with  hme-sulfur. 

The  usual  or  average  strength  of  these  concentrated  lime-sulfurs  is 
about  32°;   for  dormant  trees,  a  1-9  dilution  is  usual,  and  for  trees 


ADDEND  UM  541 

in  foliage  a  1-40  to  1-50  solution.     It  is  safer,  however,  to  use  the  hy- 
drometer and  make  a  more  careful  dilution. 

Self-boiled  lime-sulfur  (Scott's).  —  This  is  not  a  water-boiled  solution, 
as  might  be  inferred  from  the  name,  but  a  mechanical  mixture  result- 
ing from  the  heating  and  bubbling  of  the  slaking  lime,  with  but  little 
sulfur  in  solution;  it  is  therefore  specially  adapted  to  spraying  of 
peaches  and  plums  in  foliage,  for  it  causes  no  injury.  It  is  prepared 
by  placing  in  a  barrel  8  lb.  best  stone  lime  to  which  is  added  a  small 
quantity  of  cold  water  to  start  the  slaking.  Eight  pounds  of  sulfur 
worked  through  a  sieve  to  break  up  the  lumps  is  then  added  slowly  to 
the  slaking  lime,  which  is  kept  from  burning  by  the  addition  of  just 
enough  cold  water  so  as  not  to  drown  it.  The  slaking  mixture  must 
be  stirred  constantly.  Just  as  soon  as  the  slaking  is  completed  (which 
should  be  in  5  to  15  minutes)  fill  the  barrel  with  cold  water  (50  gal.). 
The  mixture  is  strained  into  the  sprayer  tank  through  a  sieve  of  20 
meshes  to  the  inch.  It  must  be  agitated  constantly  while  being  ap- 
plied, as  it  settles  rapidly.  Arsenate  of  lead  may  be  added  to  this 
mixture,  as  to  bordeaux. 


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W.  H- Jordan's  The  Feeding  of  Animals 150 

I.  P.  Roberts's  The  Horse i  25 

George  C.  Watson's  Farm  Poultry i  25 

C.  S.  Valentine's  How  to  Keep  Hens  for  Profit i  5° 

O.  Kellner's  The  Scientific  Feeding  of  Animals  (trans.)      .        .        .        «  1  90 

M.  H.  Reynolds's  Veterinary  Studies  for  Agricultural  Students          ,        .  X  75 


BOOKS  ON  AGRICULTURE  — Cbn^maerf 


On  Dairy  Work 

Henry  H.  Wing's  Milk  and  its  Products ,  ;gi  50 

C.  M.  Aikman's  Milk              i  25 

Harry  Snyder's  Dairy  Chemistry 1  00 

W.  D.  Frost's  Laboratory  Guide  in  Elementary  Bacteriology     .         .        .  i  60 

I.  P.  Sheldon's  The  Farm  and  the  Dairy i  00 

Chr.   Barthel's  Methods  Used  in  the  Examination  of  Milk  and  Dairy 

Products •••. 190 

On  Plant  Diseases,  etc. 

George  Massee's  Plant  Diseases i  60 

J.  G.  Lipman's  Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Country  Life  .....  i  50 

E.  C.  Lodeman's  The  Spraying  of  Plants     ...,,..  i  25 

H.  M.  Ward's  Disease  in  Plants  (English) i  60 

A.  S.  Packard's  A  Text-book  on  Entomology      , 4  So 

On  Production  of  New  Plants 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Plant-Breeding        ..,,,,,.,125 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Survival  of  the  Unlike     ., 200 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Evolution  of  Our  Native  Fruits 2  00 

W.  S.  Harvk'ood's  New  Creations  in  Plant  Life     .•,,,,175 

On  Economics  and  Organization 

J.  McLennan's  Manual  of  Practical  Farming       ...••.  I  50 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  State  and  the  Farmer     .......  i  25 

Henry  C.  Taylor's  Agricultural  Economics I  25 

I.  P.  Roberts's  The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook 1  25 

George  T.  Fairchild's  Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare I  25 

S.  E.  Sparling's  Business  Organization ,        ,  i  25 

In  the  Citizen's  Library.     Includes  a  chapter  on  Farming 

Kate  V.  St.  Maur's  A  Self-supporting  Home I  75 

Kate  V.  St.  Maur's  The  Earth's  Bounty I  75 

G.  F.  Warren  and  K.  C.  Livermore's  Exercises  in  Farm  Management     .  80 
H.  N.  Ogden's  Rural  Hygiene      •.,.,.,,.150 

On  Everything  Agricultural 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture: 
Vol.  I-       Farms,  Climates,  and  Soils.      Vol,  III.     Farm  Animals. 
Vol.  li.    Farm  Crops.  Vol.  IV.    The  Farm  and  the  CommuHi 

Complete  in  four  royal  8vo  volumes,  with  over  2000  illustrations. 

Price  of  sets:  cloth.  ^20  half-morocco,  ;^33 

For  further  information  as  to  any  of  the  above,  address  the  publisher. 


THE   MACMTLLAN   COMPANY 

ic'ubliBliers  64-66  Fifth  Ayenue  New  York 


OF  INTEREST  TO  ANY  GARDENER 


A  Woman's  Hardy  Garden 

By  HELENA   R.    ELY  Illustrated     Cloth     i2mo     $1.75 

"  Mrs.  Ely  give,=  copious  details  of  the  cost  of  plants,  the  exact  dates  oi 
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and  length  of  time  for  blossoming,  and  much  information  to  be  appreciated 
only  by  those  who  have  raised  a  healthy  garden  by  the  slow  teachings  of 
personal  experience."  —  New  York  Times. 

Another  Hardy  Garden  Book 

By   HELENA    R.    ELY  Illustrated     Cloth     i2mo     $1.75 

"The  great  value  of  'Another  Hardy  Garden  Book'  lies  in  the  fact  that  it 
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information  needed  by  the  amateur  gardener  of  moderate  means  and  lim- 
ited responsibilities."  —  Philadelphia  Ledger. 

A  Self-Supporting  Home 

By  KATE  V.  SAINT  MAUR 

Illustrated    Cloth     izmo    $1.7  S 
"  An  interesting  narrative  and  a  very  handy  and  practical  guide  to  life  in 
the  country  on  the  basis  of  a  small  income.     The  common-sense  practi- 
cality which  gives  the  book  its  value,  is  attributable  to  the  fact  that  these  are 
actual  experiences  described  here."  —  The  Richmond  Times- Despatch. 

The  Earth's  Bounty 

By  KATE  V.  SAINT  MAUR 

Illustrated  Cloth  i2mo  $1.75 
"  After  reading  Mrs.  Saint  Maur's  clever  book  one  feels  a  longing  for  the 
healthful  simplicity  of  the  country  life  and  the  rewards  that  it  holds  out  to 
human  thrift  and  industry.  The  book  is  full  of  practical,  accurate  business 
information  which  should  make  it  invaluable  to  any  one  anxious  to  try 
farming  for  profit."  — Philadelphia  Ledger. 

A  Book  of  Vegetables  and  Garden  Herbs 

By  ALLEN   FRENCH  Illustrated    Cloth    izmo    $1.75 


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